Consonantism

Table 2. Consonants

	Bilabial	Labio-Dental	Dental	Alveolar	Plato-Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosives
(Voiceless)	p			t			k
(Voiced)	b			d			g
Affricates
(Voiceless)					c
(Voiced)					j
Fricatives
(Voiceless)	(β)	f	(θ)	s	š		x	h
(Voiced)		v	(δ)	z	(ž)		(γ)
Nasals	m			n			(ŋ)
Approximants
(Lateral)				l
(Central)	(w)			r		y

Thus, according to this table, [p t k] form the natural class of voiceless stops.

Pārsīg contains additional sounds [β], [θ], [δ], [γ], [ŋ]. They only occur in loan-words (from Avesta, Parthian, Sogdian).

However, these sounds become allophonic variants of Pārsīg phonemes.

For example:

āθrōn ‘priest’ is a borrowed word from Av. āθravanǝm. /θ/ may be considered as a borrowed phoneme, or in the new environment it is an allophone of /s/. However, in the new environment, the sound [θ] has become alveolar, just as the sound [s]. It is then written ʾslwnꞋ and is pronounced āsrōn.
The dorsal nasal ŋ may be considered as a variant of ng.
The voiced spirant γ is indeed an allophone of g.
[w] is a labial-velar central approximate. Note that, in Avesta, old [b] fricativizes to [β] and also to [w], and the change of [u̯] to [β] is frequent. In Pārsīg, one may find [v] – [w] allophony. [w] is also described as a close back rounded glide, the consonant counterpart of [u].
[y] is a palatal central approximant. It is also treatable as a close from unrounded glide, the consonant counterpart of [i].

The consonants can be characterised as follows:

§ 3.1. p

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic p:

pādyāb ‘ritually pure’;

aped(ag) ‘lost, out of sight’;

Kap name of a mountain.

3.1.1. p < *p

Initial voiceless *p is in general maintained, while medial *p, after vowels or sonorants (semivowels and liquids) or voiced consonants, can be changed to voiced b.

°pāg < *°pāka- (cf. Skt. kṣīra-pāká- adj. ‘cooked in milk’) from paz- ‘to cook’ < *pac-a- (Av. paca-, Skt. pácati, Tokh. päk-, Parth. paž-, Osset. I fycyn, D ficun, Bal. pāč-ag),

spēdpāg ‘curd soup; sour gruel’ < *spai̯ta-pāka- (Pers. اسفیدباج , اسپیدبا),

sōrbāg ‘soup, broth’ < *ćšau̯ra-pāka- (Pers. شورباج , شوربا, Par. širwā/ sirwā ‘soup’).

pahr (also pāhr, pās) ‘watch-post, guard (-house)’ < *pāθra- (Av. pāθra- nt., Sogd. pāθr, pārθ, pāšē, Armen. parh, pah, Pers. پهره ),

pahrag/ pāhrag ‘watch-post’ < *pāθra-ka- (Armen. pahak ‘guardian, sentinel, warden’),

pāhrbed/ pāhragbed ‘master of the watch-post; Rex honoris’ < *pāθra-pati-,

pahragbān ‘keeper of a watch-post, watchman’ (also pāsǝbān) < *pāθra-pāna-

pānag (also pānāg) ‘protector, preserving, guard’ from pāy- ‘to protect’ < *paH-ai̯a-, pāybānag ‘footwear, stocking’ (cf. Yazdī pupal ‘stocking’).

pand ‘path, way; counsel, advice’ < *pantā- (Av. paṇtā-, paθ- m., OPers. paθi- f., Skt. pánthā- m., Parth. pandān, Khot. pande, pandāa-, Bactr. πανδαγο, Osset. fændag, Šuγ. půnd, Bal. pant, Paz. paṇd),

abandīh ‘error’ (Av. a-paṇti- m., Skt. á-patha- nt. ‘pathless state; wrong way, deviation’, adj. ‘pathless’),

hampand ‘companion’.

pāy ‘foot’ < *pāda-m (OPers. pāda- m., Av. pad- m., Skt. pad- m., pā́dam acc. sg., pā́da- m., Khot. pāa-, pā, Sogd. pāδ, Parth. pāδ, Osset. fad, Bal. pād, Paz. pāe),

dobāy ‘two-footed, biped; human being’ (Paz. dupāe rendered by Skt. dvi-pada-),

cahārbāy ‘four-footed (animal), quadruped’ (Paz. cihārpāe rendered by Skt. catuś-pada-).

pōš- ‘to cover, wear’ < pau̯š-ai̯a-,

pāybōš ‘slipper, babouche’ (Arab. بابوش ).

purd ‘strife, combat’ < *pṛt- (OPers. pṛtana- nt., Av. pǝrǝt- f., pǝṣanā- f., Skt. pŕ̥t- f., pŕ̥tana- nt., pŕ̥tanā- f.),

nibard ‘combat, quarrel, fight’,

nibard- ‘to fight’ < *ni-pṛt-a-,

ō ham nibard- ‘to contend with each other, contest together’.

purnāy ‘grown up; (one) of full age’ < *pṛnāi̯u- (Av. pǝrǝnāyu- adj. ‘grown up’, [a]pǝrǝnāyuka- ‘[im]mature’),

aburnāy ‘not of full age, minor (of age), boy’ (Av. a-pǝrǝnāyu- adj., Paz. aβarnāe).

3.1.2. *p may be in general maintained after voiceless consonants.

dušpādixšāy ‘impermissible, arbitrary; evil ruler’ (Paz. dušpādišāh) from pādixšāy ‘authorized, permissible; sovereign’ < *pāti-xšā-u̯an- (Sogd. pātaxšāvan, Parth. pādixšān, Bactr. παδαχþανο, Paz. pādišāh).

hampecēn ‘a compiled copy, a replica’ (Paz. hampacīn is rendered by Skt. samagrāṁ tathaiva ‘wholly-copied’) from pecēn ‘copy’ < *pati-cagna- (Aram. פַּרְשֶֶׁ֫גֶן , Hebr. פַּתְשֶֶׁ֫גֶן 'copy', Paz. pacīn, cf. Georg. წიგნი ‘book’).

jāmpaz ‘who bakes porcelain pots, glass-baker, potter’ (Av. yāmō.pacika- adj.).

nazdpeyvann ‘a relative or kinsman’, vas-peyvann ‘much connected’ from peyvann ‘joining, connection; link; lineage; relation, relative’ < *pati-banda- (Sogd. pǝcβand-ē, Parth. padβand, Paz. paeβaṇd, Pers. پیوند ).

pehipurs- (also pehiburs-) ‘to read, recite’ < *pati-pṛsa- (OPers. pati.pṛsa- ‘to read’, pati.fraθiya- ‘to be read’, Av. paiti.pǝrǝsata, Parth. paδfurs-, Sogd. pǝtfǝs-, Khot. pūś-, cf. Skt. práti-prāś- m. ‘an opponent in controversy’) from purs- ‘to ask; study’ < *pṛs-a- < *pṛć-sćá- (OPers. pṛsa-, Av. pǝrǝsa-, Skt. praś, pṛccháti, Khot. puls-, Osset. I færsyn, D færsun),

cf. also hampurs- ‘to consult, converse; conclude (a contract)’ (Av. hąm.pǝrǝsǝṇte), hampursagīh ‘consultation; interview’ (Av. hə̄m.paršti- f., Paz. hampursaī).

3.1.3. If a compound be transparent, the initial p of the second member is maintained:

a-pās ‘not safeguarded, without protection’ < *a-pāθra-.

a-pus (or abus) ‘without a son, sonless’ < a-puça- (Av. a-puθra- adj., Skt. apútra-)

hu-peyvann ‘having good relationship’.

hu-pid (or hubid) ‘of noble parentage’ (Av. huptar- adj., hufǝδrī- f., Gr. εὐπάτωρ).

3.1.4. If the final sound p which has become b join another sound p, the original sound p is restored:

šapparrag z. ‘bat’ from šab ‘night’.

3.1.5. The doubling of the sound p: p is preserved in internal position if geminated.

appar-: appurd ‘to rob, plunder’ < *apa-par-a-: *apa-pṛta- , appir- ‘to be robbed’ < apa-piri̯a-, appar ‘robbery, plunder’ (Armen. apuṙ ‘booty, spoils, plunder’, Paz. apar-),

apparag ‘robber; removed’.

aspped a title ‘chief of cavalry’ < *aspa-pati- (Aram. ʾspaṗṭā, cf. ŠKZ 31 ʾsppt: ʾsppty: ασπιπιδου).

Kappadokyā top. (OPers. katpatuka-, Gr. Καππαδοκία).

3.1.6. In a few loan words the intervocalic p is maintained:

kāpūr ‘camphor’ (Skt. karpū́ra- m., Marathi kāpūr, Gr. kάμφορα, Arab. کافور ).

nīlōpar/ nīlōpal bot. ‘lotus (plant), water lily, Nymphaea’ (Skt. nīlôtpala- nt. ‘blue lotus’, Sindhi nilupul) ≈ xvarperistag .

§ 3.2. t

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic t:

tāyag ‘strong; strength, ability’;

petān ‘sound; noise, din, clamor’;

pit ‘meal, food; meat’.

3.2.1. t < *t

Initial voiceless *t is in general maintained, and medial or final *t after voiceless fricatives is retained unchanged; in other cases, it can be changed to voiced d.

astar ‘mule’ < ása-tara- (Skt. aśvatará- m.), but xardar ‘id.’ < xara-tara- (Av. xara- m. ‘donkey, ass’, Khot. khaḍara- ‘mule’, Sogd. xǝrtǝrē < *xaratara-ka-, Turk. قاطر /qatïr/).

āštīh ‘peace, concord’ < *āxštii̯aθu̯a- (Av. āxšti- f., Parth. āštīf ‘peace’, Armen. hašt ‘reconciled, propitious’, Gīl. āšt ‘id.’).

ayāb- (or, āyāb-): ayāft ‘to obtain, attain, reach; find’ < *adi (or, abi)-(H)āp-ai̯a-, *°(H)āp-ta- (Av. avi apaya, Skt. āp, āpnóti, āptá-, Khot. byev-, byeh-: byauda-, Sogd. ǝβyāpt-, Paz. ayāβ-: ayāft, cf. Skt. abyāpti-),

ayāft(ag) ‘acquired; acquiring’ (Paz. ayāftaa).

bast ‘bound, closed; imprisoned, confined; contingent’ < *basta- ppp. of *band ‘to bind, tie’ (OPers. basta-, Av. basta-, Skt. baddhá-, Sogd. βǝst, Yazγ. vůst), bastag ‘id.’ < *basta-ka- (Sogd. βǝstē, Bactr. βασταγο).

baxt ‘divided, bestowed’ < *baxta-, (Av. baxta- adj. ‘assigned, alloted’, nt. ‘share’, Skt. bhaktá-, Sogd. βǝγd).

¹naft ‘moist; naphtha’ < *napta- (Av. napta-, Sogd. nǝβdē ‘moist, damp’ < *napta-ka-, Gr. νάφθα).

²naft (also nabād) ‘grandson; kindred’ < *napt-, napti̯a-,

naftī ‘grand-daughter’ < *naptī- f. (Av. napāt-/ napt- m., naptī- f., naptya- adj. ‘kindred, descendant’, m. pr. n., nava.naptya- nt., OPers. napāt-, Skt. naptī́- f.).

nibišt ‘written’ < *ni-pi(x)šta- (OPers. ni-pišta-, Av. °pišta-/ °pixšta-, Skt. piṣṭá-, piśitá-, Sogd. nǝpixšt-, Bactr. ναβιχτο/ νιβιχτο, Paz. naβašt, Pers. نوشت ).

stūn ‘column, post, pillar’ < *stūnā- (OPers. stūnā-, Av. stūna- m., stūnā- f., Skt. sthū́nā-, Khot. stunā-, Sangl. ǝstīn, Pašt. stǝn, Lakī sutǝn),

stūnag ‘trunk’ (Paz. stūnaa).

tab ‘fever’ < *tapa(h)- (Skt. tápas- nt. ‘warmth, heat, pain’, Hittite tapašša- ‘heat, fever’, Par. tau, Sogd. antap < *han-tapah-, Wakh. andav, Yidγa īdou).

tan ‘body; self; person’ < *tanū- (OPers. tanū- f., Av. tanū-, Skt. tanū́-, Bactr. τανο),

tanvār ‘trunk of the body, physique’ < *tanu-pāra- (Sogd. tambār, Parth. tanβār/ tambār),

adan/ a-tan ‘incorporeal’ (Paz. atan), hamtan ‘of the same stature’.

tāy ‘thief’ < *tāi̯u- (Av. tāyu- m., Skt. tāyú- m., Sogd. tāy, Khwar. tāh, cf. Aram. tptyʾ ‘policemen’).

tēz ‘swift; sharp’ < *tai̯ja- (Av. taēža- adj., brōiθrō.taēža- ‘sharp [blade] at the cutting edge’, Parth. tēž), tēg ‘point; blade of a sword; beam’ < *tai̯ga- (Av. taēγa- adj., bi-taēγa- ‘double-edged’, Osset. I tīγ, D teγæ ‘ridge’, Armen. tēg ‘lance, pike, dart’, Bal. tēγ ‘sharp’, Paz. tə̄h).

tigr ‘fast, swift’ < *tigra- (OPers. tigra- adj. ‘pointed’, tigra-xauda- ‘with a pointed hat’, Av. tiγra- adj. ‘sharp’, tiži- ‘sharp’, the compound form of tiγra-, cf. tiži.aršti- ‘with a sharp spear’, tižī.dāra- ‘with a sharp blade’, Parth. tirγ ‘fast, swift’, cf. Skt. tigitá- adj. ‘sharp’, tigmá- adj. ‘sharp, pointed’), tigr (also tīr) ‘arrow’ < *tigri- (Av. tiγri- m. ‘arrow’, Sogd. tirγi ‘arrow’).

vēz-: vixt ‘to sift; separate, winnow’ < *u̯ai̯c-ai̯a-: *u̯ixta- (Av. vic, °vaēcayeiti, Skt. vic, Bal. gēčag, Osset. D wiğd, Zaz. vit, Pers. بیختن ).

vēz-: vixt ‘to swing, brandish, throw’ < *u̯ai̯j-a- (Av. vaēja- pres., °vixta- ppp., hunivixta- adj. ‘well-brandished’, Skt. vij, vijáte ‘to move with a quick darting motion’, Osset. I wīγyn, D weγun, Bal. gējag).

yašt ‘consecrated; ceremony; the sacrificial text’ < *i̯ášta- adj. ‘consecrated’, *i̯ášti- f. ‘consecrating’ (Av. yašta- adj., yašti- f., Khot. gyaṣṭa-, Armen. yašt ‘sacrifice given to gods, oblation’),

yaštag < *i̯ášta-ka-.

3.2.2. The enclitic second person pronouns, °t/ °Vt, °tān/ °Vtān, remain unchangeable:

bē-t ‘but you’, u-t ‘and you’.

ka-tān ‘when you’, agar-tān ‘if you’.

3.2.3. Sometimes *tṛ becomes t:

ādur/ ādar ‘fire’ < *ātar-, ātṛ-m, ātaš ‘fire’ < *ātṛ-š (Av. ātar- m., ātarǝ voc. sg., ātarš nom. sg., ātrǝm/ G ātrə̄m acc. sg., Parth. āδur, Sogd. ātar, āš, Khwar. ādir, Bactr. αταρο, αθοþο, Yaγ. ōl, Pašt. ōr, Paz. ādar, ātaš, Pers. آتش آذر ).

tišn ‘thirst’ < *tṛšna- (Av. taršna- m. ‘thirst’, Skt. tŕ̥ṣṇā- f. ‘id.’, Sogd. cǝšn-, Khot. ttarra-, Paz. tarš),

tišnag ‘thirsty’ < *tṛšna-ka- (Yid. trušnē, Pers. تشنه , چشنه ).

3.2.4. t < *c:

tas° (also, cahār°) ‘four, quadru°’ < *caçu° < *caθru° (Av. caθru°, parth. cuhr°, Khot. tcūra-, Pašt. calōr°),

tasum ‘fourth’ < *caçuma- < *caθruma- (Parth. cuhram/ cuhrum, Khot. tcūrama-),

tasēn (or, cahārēn) ‘fourth’ < *caçu̯ai̯na- ,

taspāy (or, tasubāy, also cahārbāy) ‘four-footed, quadruped’ < *caçu-pāda- < *čaθru-pāda-,

taskirb ‘four-formed’ < *čaçu-kṛp-a-.

tis ‘thing’ < *cit-cit (OPers. ciš-ciy acc. sg. nt., Parth. ciš, Paz. θis, Kurd. tišt, Pers. چیز ).

3.2.5. If the final sound t which has become d join another sound t, the original sound is restored:

buland ‘high, tall; aloud’ < *bṛdantam < *bṛj́ant-am (Av. bǝrǝzaṇt-, cf. Elam. pir-tan-da < *bṛdant-a-),

bulanttar comp. ‘higher’ (Pers. بلنتر ).

pād ‘protected, guarded, secure’ < *pāta- (OPers.-Av. pāta- adj., Skt. pāta- ppp. of pā),

pāttum ‘most protected’.

vad ‘evil, bad, wretched’ < *u̯ata- (Armen. vat ‘mean-spirited, bad, wicked, vile’, Paz. vat̰, Bal. gwat, Pers. بد, گد ).

3.2.6. Cluster tr

truf-: truft/ trift ‘to steal, rob’ < *turf- < *tṛfi̯a- (Sogd. cǝf-, Yidγ. tǝrif-: tǝrǝft, cf. Av. trǝfyāt̰).

trufš/ trifš/ truš ‘sour; acid’ < *tṛfša- (Parth. trifš, Wax. trešp, Yaγ. tišpa, Pers. ترش ).

3.2.7. The doubling of the sound t (gemination):

kabōttar ‘pigeon, dove’ < *kapau̯ta-tara- (Orm. kaftar),

kabōd ‘grey-blue; dove’ < *kapau̯ta- (Skt. kapóta- m. ‘dove’, Khot. kavūta- ‘blue, grey’, Waxī kibīt),

kabōdag ‘id.’ < *kapau̯ta-ka- (OPers. kapautaka- ‘blue’, kāsaka- … kapautaka- ‘lapis lazuli’),

Kabōdān name of a lake, an island (Armen. Kaputan, Pers. کبوذان ).

pettāy-: pettūd ‘to endure, last, remain, survive’ < *pati-tāu̯-ai̯a- (Parth. pattāv-, cf. ŠKZ 27 ptwdʾt: ptyʾwyd: εξαρκεση),

pettāyišn ‘endurance’ < *patitāu̯ašna-,

pettūg ‘enduring, persistant’ < *patituu̯aka-.

suttag bot. ‘berry’ < *suxta- (Pers. سته /satta/ ‘grape; vinegar’. Cf. Skt. śuktá- adj. ‘sour’, Khot. suttä ‘vinegar’).

vattar ‘worse’ comp. of vad ‘bad’(Armen. vattʿar ‘worse; ill, mischievous, wicked, ignoble’, Pers. بتر ),

vattum superl. ‘worst’.

3.2.8. *θ rarely becomes t:

gētīg ‘material, worldly; world’ < *gai̯θi̯a-ka- (Av. gaēiθya- adj. ‘pertaining to the world of life’, Paz. gə̄θī, Pers. گیتی ),

but gēhān ‘world’ < *gai̯θā- (OPers. gaiθā-, Av. gaēθā- f. ‘herd, living being, world of life’).

3.2.9. The initial t of the second member of a compound is maintained if the compound be transparent:

a-tis ‘nothing, Nihilum’ (Paz. aθis), nē-tis ‘id.’ (Paz. nə̄θis, Pers. ناچیز ).

hu-tāšīd ‘well-built’ (Av. hu-tăšta- adj. ‘well-fashioned, well-made’, tašta- verbal adjective of taš, also tāšta-, Skt. taṣṭá- ‘fashioned, formed in mind’).

kēntōz ‘repaying vengeance’ (Paz. xīnθōž: 1. kēn ‘revenge, rancour, malice’ < *kai̯nā-, Av. kaēnā- f., Osset. D kīnæ/ kenæ, Paz. kīn, xīn, cf. Av.-Skt. ci. 2. °tōz from tōz-: tuxt ‘to repay, retaliate, expiate, atone for’ < *tau̯jai̯a-, Parth. tōž-, Bactr. τωζ-, Paz. θōž-: θōxt).

3.2.10. After the geminate consonant n, t is maintained:

kantigr/ kantīr ‘quiver’ < kanntigr < *kand[a]-tigri- (cf. Av. akana- nt.).

3.2.11. In a few loan words t is maintained after a vowel:

catrang ‘chess’ from Skt. catur-aṅga- adj. ‘(an army) comprising four parts’, nt. ‘a kind of chess (played by four parties)’ (Arab. شطرنج ).

petit ‘penance’ from Av. paitita- nt. ‘penitence’ (Armen. °payit, Paz. patit).

šumbat ‘Saturday, Sabbath’ from Aramaic šabbtā ‘week; Saturday’ (Hebr. שַּבָּת , Parth. šambat, Paz. šuṇbat̰, cf. Assyrian šabattum: ûm nûḫ libbi ‘day of rest of heart’).

zōt ‘high-priest at an actual Yasna-ceremony’ from Av. zaotar- m., zaota/ G zaotā nom. sg. ‘officiating priest’ (Skt. hótar- m.).

§ 3.3. k

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic k:

kāh ‘straw’;

akirī ‘it has been done’;

ak ‘bad, evil’.

3.3.1. k < *k

Initial voiceless *k is in general retained unchanged.

kabāh ‘gown, cloak, mantle, overcoat; cape’ < *kap- (suffix) (Khot. khapa- ‘dress’, Bal. kawāh, Tokh. B kepec < *kapacä-, Armen. kapay ‘cassock; monk's gown’, Pers. قبا , قباه ).

kabārag ‘container, earthenware cup’ < *kapāra-ka- (Skt. kapā́la- nt. ‘cup, jar, bowl; cover; skull, cranium’, kapālikā- f. ‘shard’, Pers. ،کباره کواره ).

kabīz a measure of capacity, a grain measure < *kapí-cī- (OPers.-Gr. καπίθη, Khot. kaba, Bactr. καβσο, καβιζο, Armen. kapič̣, Pers. کویز , کفیز , Arab. قفيز ).

kadag ‘house, home, abode’ < *kata-ka- (Bactr. καδαγο/ καδγο, Sogd. kǝtē, Yaγn. kat, katāla, Yazdī xada, Russ. хата ‘hut’, Aby. ka, kayā, Pers. کده ), kadīzag ‘small house, cottage’.

kādag ‘game, play ; pleasantry, joke’ < *kāta-ka- (Sogd. kāt, kātē, Armen. katak ‘jest, joke, trifling, pleasantry; derision; sport’, cf. Skt. kātkṛta- ‘mocked’, Dk vii, M 620 kādag kird).

kafš ‘shoe, sandal’ < *kafši- (Bactr. καφþο, Khot. khauṣa. Cf. Skt. kavaṣi- in a Sanskrit-Chinese glossary, Tib. kab-ša, Arab. قفش ).

kām ‘desire, wish; will’ < *kā-ma- (OPers.-Av. kāma- m., Skt. kā́ma- m., Bactr. καμο),

kāmag ‘id.’ (Paz. kāmaa).

kamāl/ kamār ‘head’ < *ka-mṛda- (Av. kamǝrǝδa- nt., Bactr. Καμιρδο attribute of a god, Khot. kamala- ‘head; person; beginning’, Yidγā kyemalγo ‘skull’, Tokh. B kamartiki ‘chiefs’, cf. Skt. mūrdhán- nt. ‘cranium, head, chief’).

kan- : d ‘to dig’ < *kan-a- (OPers. kaniya- pres., kanta- ppp., Av. kan-a-, °kaṇta-, Paz. xan- : xad),

kandag ‘dug, engraved, peeled; ditch, moat’ < *kanta-ka- (Armen. kʿandak ‘sculpture, chiselling, intaglio’, Arab. خندق ),

nigan- ‘to bury’ < *ni-kan-a-.

kaš-/ karš-/ kiš- ‘to draw (furrows); drag; trace; pull’ < *kar-š-a- (Av. karš-a-, karšta-, Skt. kárṣati, Sogd. xarš, xaṁš-, Bal. Kašag, Paz. kaš-/ kiš-),

kiš ‘line drawn on the ground; furrow; boundary line’ (Av. karša- m.).

kōs ‘side, corner’ < *kau̯sa- (Sogd. kōs, kōš, Bactr. κωσο, Armen. koys ‘side; party’),

pāygōs (also pādgōs) ‘district, quarter, province’ < *pāti-kau̯sa- (Parth. pāδgōs, Paz. pāδkōs).

3.3.2. Internal or final k, under some circumstances, is changed to its corresponding voiced plosive g. It is retained unchanged after the voiceless consonants f, t, s, š, h and nasal m –note that after voiced consonants and vowels, final k becomes g.

arešk < *aresk ‘envy, jealousy’ < *araska- (Av. araska- m. ‘envy’, Sogd. arǝsk, Parth. rask).

bišehk ‘doctor, physician’ < *bišadka- < *bhiš-aj- (Parth. bizešk, cf. Skt. bhiṣáj- m. ‘healer’, bhiṣák nom. sg., Parth. bizešk, Armen. bžišk, Paz. bažašk, Pers. بزشک , بجشک ).

hamkirb ‘having the same body or form’ < *háma-kṛp-, also hangirb ‘homo-morph, double (person)’.

jask (also yask) ‘sickness’ < *i̯aska- (Av. yaska- m. ‘disease’, Pers. جسک ‘calamity’).

kafškar ‘shoe-maker’ < *kafši-kara-.

kāmkār (also kāmagār) ‘independant, sovereign’ < *kāma-kāra- (Parth. kāmagār, Paz. kāmkār, Abū Nuwās : ماهها الکامکار ).

kōšk ‘palace; castle, citadel’ < *kau̯ška- < *kau̯žda-ka- (Tokh. B koṣko ‘hut’, Khot. kūṣḍa- ‘palace’, Arab. کوشک ‘kiosk’, جوسق ‘kiosk; palace’).

mašk ‘skin, hide; leather’ from OPers. maškā- f. ‘(inflated) hide’ (from Akkad. mašku ‘skin; raw hide, tanned leather’, Arab. مسك ), maškīzag ‘table-cloth’ (Pers. مشکیزه , مشکیجه).

patk ‘palpebra, eyelid’ < *pátaka- (Waxī patk/ patuk ‘eyelash’, Yidγā pëlëk ‘id.’, Kirmānī patk, Šuγn. puθč, Pers. پلک ).

putk ‘sledge-hammer; anvil’ < *pútaka- (Šuγnī pulk, Yazdī potk/ podk, Kurd. pík).

škōh (also eškōh) ‘poor, miserable’ < *škau̯θi- (OPers. škauθi-/ skauθi-, Parth. eskōh/ eskō).

3.3.3. Final *k may be maintained even when h before k falls:

kark ‘hen, fowl; chicken’ < *karhka- < *karka- (Av. kahrka°, kahrkatāt- f. ‘rooster’, Skt. kṛkavā́ku- m. ‘saying kṛka, cock’, Waxī kerk ‘hen, fowl’, Aby. kārg ‘cock; hen’, Gīl. kark ‘id.’, kurk ‘laying hen’ < *kṛka-).

nāk ‘nose’ < *nāh-ka- (cf. Vd 3.14 nā̊ŋhanat̰ haca: az nāk bē. Skt. nás-/ nā́s- f. ‘nose’)

nazdīk ‘near, close’ < *nazdīhk < *nazdi̯ah[a]ka- (Av. nazdyō adv., Skt. nédīyas- adj., Bal. nazīk).

nēk ‘good, nice’ < *nēhk < *nái̯u̯aka-m (OPers. naiba, Paz. nyak/ nyahk < *nai̯u̯áka-hi̯a, Šīrāzī nehk-ō).

pāk ‘clean, pure; holy’ < *pau̯ā́ka- (Skt. pāvaká- adj. ‘pure, clear, shining’, m. ‘fire’, Parth. pavāg).

yak ‘one’ < *ēáhk- < *ēhák-ē < *ai̯u̯áka-hi̯a (Paz. yak), also ēk < *ḗhak- < *ái̯u̯aka-hi̯a.

3.3.4. If the final sound k which normally becomes g take a diminutive suffix -(a)k < *-ka-, the two sounds merge into one k:

andak ‘little, few; a little’ < *antákaka- (Paz. aṇdak).

bārīk ‘thin, fine’ < *bāri̯a-ka-ka- (Av. °bāra- m., tiži.bāra- adj., Bal. bāraγ ‘thin, fine, lean’, Armen. barak ‘thin; narrow; fine, tender, delicate’),

meyān-bārīk ‘slender-waisted’.

kōdak ‘small, young; baby; chicken’ < *kau̯ta-ka-ka- (Armen. kotak ‘short in stature, little, young, squat, dumpy’, Paz. kudak, kōdak, kōdagą, cf. Skt. kavatnú- adj.), or kudak (cf. Av. kutaka- adj. ‘small’, Šuγnī kut m., kat f. ‘short’), kavāt(ak) ‘young of an animal’ < *kau̯āta-ka-ka- (Paz. kaβādah, cf. Gīl. kātak ‘chicken’).

sabúk ‘light (not heavy), easy; flippant, frivolous’ < *çapú-ka-ka- < *θrapú-ka-ka- (Skt. trápu- nt. ‘tin’, Lakī sövek, Rājī subōk).

tanúk ‘thin; shallow’ < *tanú-ka-ka- (Skt. tanú- adj. ‘thin, slender, small’, tanu-ka- adj. ‘small’, Sar. tanük, Kurd. tenik, Osset. tænæg, Bal. tanak, tǝnǝk).

3.3.5. Gemination

If the final sound k be in secondary contact with another sound k, it may be retained, and the result is gemination:

cārūkkar lit. ‘lime-maker’ gl. of zamīgpaz ‘potter’

kē ātaš ī az xumbag ī zamīgpazān [cārūkkarān] ō hān ī dādīhā gāh abar bared). Vd 8.84. from cārūg ‘lime, mortar’ < *cāru-ka-.

kirbakkar ‘benefactor, pious’ < *kṛpaka-kara- (Paz. kǝrbagar), kirbag ‘goodness, meritorious work, charity, piety’.

zīndakkar ‘life-giving’ < *jiu̯antaka-kara- (Parth. žīvandagar), zīndag ‘alive’.

3.3.6. The initial k of the second member of a compound is maintained if the compound be transparent:

a-kušīdār ‘non-combatant’ from kuš- ‘to strive, struggle, fight’ < *kuš-a- (Paz. akōxšīdār).

cē-kārag ‘of what profession’.

hu-kunišn ‘doing good’, kunišn ‘act, work, deed, practice’ from kun- ‘to do’ < *kún-a-, later kun-ai̯a- (Paz. hukunišni).

3.3.7. In a few loan words k is maintained after a vowel:

akaman (also akōman) ‘possessed by evil thought’ < *aka-manah- from Av. aka- manah- ‘evil thought’ (Pers. اکومن ) as opposed to vohu- manah- ‘good thought’ (Pers. vahman, Guj. gvahman, Pers. بهمن ).

akataš a learned word, ‘who fashions evil’ from Av. akataš- m.

gōkirn bot. from Av. gaokǝrǝna- m. < *gau̯-kṛna- rather than *gau̯-kṛdna- ‘milk-resin’ (cf. Skt. kīrná-).

kurkum ‘Crocus sativus, saffron’ from Akkad. kurkānū (kur-ka-nu-u, kur-ka-nam) a medical plant, listed among aromatics (Skt. kuṅkuma- nt., Khot. kurkuma-, Hebr. כַּרְכֹּם, Gk. κάγκαμον).

makōg (or makūg) ‘(river) boat; ship-shaped bowl, cup’, cf. Akkad. makkūtu ‘short boat’ (Sumerian gišmá.kud.da), makkitu ‘(tow)boat, barge’, Khot. makku ‘boat’, Armen. makoyk ‘skiff, punt, wherry, ship's boat, canoe’.

šakar ‘sugar’ (Skt. śarkarā- f. ‘candied sugar’, Kharoṣṭhī inscr. śakara, Khot. śśakara-, Sogd. šǝkǝr-),

nay ī šakar ‘sugar cane’

§ 3.4. c

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic c:

cōb ‘wood; stick; club’;

ācār ‘(high and low) ground’;

gac ‘plaster’.

3.4.1. Initial *c is maintained:

cābuk ‘agile, nimble, active; fine (dress), excellent’ < *cāpúka-ka- (Armen. č̣apuk ‘creeping, crawling; swift; pliable, flexible’).

cagād ‘peak, ridge; summit, mountain top’ < *čakāta- (Sogd. cǝkāt, Armen. č̣akat ‘forehead; front’, Kurd. ciyā ‘mountain’, Pers. چکاذ, چغاد, cf. Skt. kakā́ṭikā- f. ‘a particular part of the frontal bone’, reṇú-kakāṭa- adj. ‘with the head covered with the dust’).

cāh ‘pit, well’ < *cāθ-a- (Av. cāiti loc. sg., Khot. tcāta-, Sogd. cāt), cāhrēg ‘pond, pool; cistern; container’ < *cā́θa-rai̯ka-, Arab. صهريج ), cf. ābrēg.

car- ‘to graze, pasture’ < *car-a- (Av. cara- pres. ‘to walk, move’, Skt. car, cárati ‘to walk, carrer’, Bal. čarag ‘to graze’, Osset. cæryn ‘to live’, Pers. چریدن ‘to graze’).

cašm ‘eye’ < *cašman- < *čáćšman- (OPers. cašman- nt., Av. cašman-, Khot. tcǝiman-, Sogd. cǝmē/ cǝšmē, Khwar. cm, Orm. cimī, Lakī cam/ ceyam, Gr. inscr. τιασμ°, Osset. cæst, cf. Skt. cákṣuṣ- nt.),

cašmag ‘source, spring, fountain’, pr. n. < *cašmaka-,

cašmdīd ‘visible, obvious, plain to see’ < cášma-dīta- (Armen. č̣šmarit ‘true, unquestionable, veridical’, adv. ‘truly, indeed’),

cašmīzag ‘a medical black grain, Nigella sativa’ < *cašmii̯acaka- (Arab. چشميزج , تشميزج ).

caxr ‘(spinning) wheel’ < *čaxra- (Av. caxra-, Skt. cakrá-, Bal. čark, Šuγn. čārx, Osset. calx, Khowar čaxur, Pers. چرخ ).

caxr a bird of prey < *caxra- (Pers. چرخ , چرغ < *caγra-, Arab. صقر ),

caxrvāg name of a bird < *caxravāka- (Skt. cakravāká- m., Khot. tcīrau < *caγravāka-), variants: cixrāb, cērāb.

cēr ‘prevailing, triumphant; adroit’ < *cairi̯a- (Paz. cə̄r, cf. Av. ciryō).

cihr ‘seed; nature; form, shape, appearance, face’ < *ciθra- (OPers. ciça-, Av. ciθra- adj., nt., Skt. citrá- adj. ‘visible’, nt., Khot. cira- adj. ‘conspicuous, evident’, Paz. cihar, cf. Khot. tcara-/ tcira- ‘face, image’),

cihrag ‘face, form’ < *ciθra-ka- (Bactr. σιργο ‘proof’).

cirāh ‘lamp, light’ < *cirāgu- (Parth. cirāγ, Khot. cärau, Sogd. cirāγ, Osset. D ciraγ, I cyraγ, Bal. čirāγ, Arab. سراج ).

3.4.2. Internal or final *c is normally maintained after the consonants f, h, k, m, (s), š, x:

ēc or hēc ‘any’ < *ēhc < *ḗha-ci < *ái̯u̯a-cit (Parth. ēviž, Yazd. heš, Paz. hə̄c, Pers. هیچ , ایچ , هیش), also ēv-iz.

kafc unit of capacity, ‘spoonful’ < *kápa-ca-, *kapa- ‘container’ (Sogd. kǝpc, Waxī kapč ‘spoon’, Pers. کفچ ).

Manušcihr pr. n. m. < Av. manuš.ciθra- (Pers. منوچهر ).

nahcihr/ nahcīr/ naxcīr ‘wild animal; hunting, chase’ < *naxu-sčṛi̯a- ‘the top (quarry) which is to be chased’ (Parth. naxcīr, Sogd. naxšīr, Krorayina načira ‘hunting; quarry’, Armen. naxč̣ir ‘carnage, massacre, slaughter; waste’),

nahcīrbed ‘master of the hunt, lord of hunting’ (Skt. inscr. naścīrapati- m., Aram. Ḥ naḥšīrpṭā).

nāmcišt ‘well-known’, adv. ‘in particular, especially’ < *nāma-čišta- (Paz. nąmcišt, cf. Av. ciš ‘to commit; assign’).

pākcihr (also pāzīr) ‘of pure race’ anthropon. < *pau̯āka-ciθra- (Parth. pāžihr, cf. ŠKZ 29 pwkctry: pʾšhr: παζηρου).

3.4.3. In a transparent compound, the initial c of the second member is maintained:

a-cār ‘helpless; inevitable, necessary’ from cār ‘means, remedy’ < *cārā- (Av. cārā- f.).

ē-cand (also ēvcand) ‘some, a few’ (Paz. ə̄ucaṇd).

hu-cašm ‘having good eyes’ (Paz. hūcašm).

3.4.4. c < **cu̯*

cand ‘some, a few; much; how much? how many?’ < *c(u̯)ant- < *ciu̯ant- < *cīu̯ant- (Av. cvaṇt- ‘how much’, Skt. kī́vant-, Parth. cvand/ cvend, Paz. caṇd).

3.4.5. Geminated cc may be the result of tc or ts:

gacc (also gac) ‘plaster, mortar, gypsum’ from < *gatsa- (Akkad. gaṣṣu ‘gypsum, whitewash’, Khot. gatsä, gītsara-, Arab. جصّ , قصّ , cf. Av. vīcĭca- nt. ‘gypsum’, vīcĭcaēšva loc. pl., glossed by gacēn ‘made of gypsum’).

peccēn (also pecēn) ‘copy, duplicate, transcript, double’ < *pati-čagna- (Aram. פַּרְשֶגֶן , Hebr. פַּתְשֶֶׁ֫גֶן , Armen patč̣ēn),

hampeccēn (also hampecēn) ‘id.’ (Paz. hampacīn), opp. māyagvar ‘original’.

vaccag ‘child’ < *u̯at-caka- lit. ‘under age’ (*u̯at- ‘year’ < *u̯et-) or vaccag ‘young of an animal, fatling; calf’ < *u̯atsa-ka-, (Skt. vatsá- ‘calf’, Pal. vaccha- ‘id.’, Kalasha bacha ‘yearling, male calf’, Osset. D wæs ‘calf’, Bal. gwask ‘id.’, Orm. γwac/ γuskak ‘id.’).

3.4.6. In a few loan words an intervocalic c or the sound c after a vowel is maintained:

Cēcast (also Cēcist) name a lake from Av. caēcasta- m.

§ 3.5. b

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic b:

bār ‘time, occasion’;

ābād ‘prosperous, inhabited’;

nab ‘grandson’,

babr ‘tiger’.

3.5.1. *b is in general maintained:

abōy ‘unaware; senseless’ < a-bau̯dah- (cf. Av. baoδah- nt., ahąm.baoδǝmnō).

abr ‘cloud’ < *abra- (Av. aβra- nt. ‘cloud, rainy weather’, Skt. abhrá- nt. ‘cloud; atmosphere, sky’, Parth. aβr ‘cloud’, bēβr ‘(thick) cloud’, Khot. ora- ‘sky’, Osset. arv ‘sky’, ævrag ‘cloud’, Pašt. ōrǝ ‘cloud’, Bal. haur, Paz. aβar).

babrag ‘beaver’ < *babhra-ka- (Av. baβra- m., Skt. babhrú- adj. ‘deep-brown, reddish-brown’, babhruká- adj. ‘brownish’).

bādag ‘(young) wine, must’ < *bāta-ka- (OPers. bātu°, b-a-tu-u-g-r /bātugara-/ ‘wine-cup, saucer’, Khot. bātaa- ‘new wine, must’, Pers. باده , Arab. بادق ).

bām ‘beam of light; dawn; splendour’ < *bāma- (Av. bāmya- adj. ‘splendid, luminous, shining’, Skt. bhā́ma- m. ‘splendour, light’, Sogd. βām),

bāmdād ‘dawn, morning’ < *bāma-dāti-.

bann ‘bond, link, fetter; bondage, prison; tendon’ < *banda- (Av. baṇda- m., Skt. bandhá- m., Parth. band, Bactr. βανδο, Paz. baṇd),

bannag ‘servant, subject’ < *banda-ka- (OPers. bandaka-, Parth. bandag, Osset. I bændæg, Bactr. βανδαγο, Paz. baṇdaa),

peyvann ‘connection, relation, tie’ < *pati-banda- (Parth. padβand, Paz. paēβaṇd).

bar-: burd ‘to bear, carry; endure, suffer; behave’ < *bar-a-: bṛta- (OPers. bara-, °bṛta-, Av. bar-aiti, bǝrǝta-, Skt. bhár-ati, bhṛtá-, Bactr. βαρ-: βορδο).

bārag ‘mount; steed’ < *bāra-ka- (Khot. bāraa- ‘riding animal; vehicle’, Sogd. βārē ‘rider; riding animal’, Yazγ. varag, Šuγn. vōrǰ ‘(male) horse’ < *bāra-čī, Paz. bāraa, Osset. barāg ‘rider’, Arab. براق ).

bay (also bá) ‘lord; god; Majesty’ < *baga- (OPers. baga-, Av. baγa-/ G baga- m., Skt. bhága-, Parth. baγ, Sogd. βǝγ-i, Paz. baγ, Arab. °فغ ),

bayān/ bān (also baˁān) < *bagānām (OPers. bagānām, Av. baγanąm, Sogd. βǝγān, Paz. byąn),

bānūg ‘lady, mistress’ (bānīg) may come from *baga- and the feminine-forming suffix *-ānī-, *bagānī-, *bagānikā-, then bʾnykn /bānīgān/ in ŠKZ 33 is a correct form < *bagānikanām.

bazm ‘banquet, table’ < *bazma- (cf. Armen. bazmakan ‘guest, invited person, table-companion; table, banquet, ἀνακείμενος; couch’),

bazmāvurd ‘sandwich’ < *bazmābṛta- (Arab. زماورد ).

bīm ‘fear, apprehension’ < *bīma- (Av. byah- m., Skt. bhīmá- adj. ‘fearful’).

bīz ‘seed’ < *bīza- (Skt. bī́ja- nt. ‘semen, seed-corn’, Par. bīz ‘corn, grain’, Khot. bīja- < *bīz-i̯a-, Sogd. βīzāk < *bīza-ka-).

bram- ‘to weep, lament, cry’ < *bram-a-, also brām- < *brām-ai̯a- (Khot. brem- ‘to weep’, Sogd. mrāv ‘weeping’, Gīl. burmē ‘tears, weeping’). brūg ‘(eye)brow’ < *brū-kā- (Av. brvat̰.byąm < *bruu̯-at- f., Skt. bhrū́- f., Sogd. βrūk, Khot. braukalä, Sangl. vrīc < *brū-čī-, Lakī bǝrū, Bal. burvān, Pers. ابرو ).

byaspag ‘carriage’ < *bi-aspa-ka- (Armen despak ‘palankeen, litter’, Khot. dva-aśa ‘[a carriage] with two horses’, Pers. دواسپه ‘courier, messenger’).

byaspān ‘(royal) envoy, courier, messenger’ < *bi-aspāna- (Armen. despan ‘ambassador, envoy’, Arab. دوسفان ‘message’).

3.5.2. b < *p

*p in intervocalic position (intervocalic lenition) or after a vowel or after consonants (except *s) becomes b:

āb ‘water’ < *āp- (OPers. ap-, Av. ap- f., āpǝm, ăpō, Skt. áp-, Sogd. āp, Yaγn. ōp, Paz. āβ),

anāb ‘waterless; unmixed, pure (wine)’ < *an-āpa- (Av. anāpa-, Pers. ناب ),

anābag ‘id.’ (Armen. anapak ‘pure, unmixed; natural wine).

ābād ‘prosperous, populous, flourishing, inhabited’ < *ā-pātā- (Sogd. āpāt ‘prosperous’, āpāt āpāt ‘well done!’, Armen. apat ‘inhabited place, residence, habitation.’, Paz. āβāδ),

an-ābād ‘uninhabited’ (Armen. anapat ‘desert, wilderness, solitude, hermitage’),

ābādān ‘cultivated, thriving’ < *āpātāna- (Paz. āβādą).

abādixšā(y) ‘lacking authority; unauthorized’ < *a-pāti-xšā-u̯an-, pādixšāy ‘authoritative; authorized’ (Paz. aβādišāh).

abāg ‘with; joined’ < *upāka-i̯ (Skt. úpāka- adj. ‘joined’, upāké ‘in the presence of’, Paz. aβā, Pers. با ),

abāgīh ‘company, concomitance’ (Paz. aβāgī).

abām, older abāmīh ‘debt, loan’ < *apāmiθi̯a- (Skt. apa-mítya- nt. ‘debt’, also apāmítya- nt., Parth. abāmīh, Sogd. pāmitē, Bactr. βαμδδιγο, Paz. aβąm, Pers. اوام , وام , افام , فام ).

abāxtar ‘northern; north’, ‘planet’ < *apāxtara- (Av. apāxtara-/ apāxǝδra- adj. ‘backward, northern’, Bactr. αβαχρανο, Armen. apaxtar ‘foretelling by the table of planets’, apaxtar-kʿ ‘of evil omen, sad destiny’, Paz. aβāxtar).

abē° a privative prefix < *apa-i̯t° (Parth. abē-/ aβē-, Bactr. αβη-, Paz. aβə̄, Pers. بی ),

abē-bīm ‘fearless, safe, secure’ < *apa-i̯t-bīma-,

abē-cār ‘remediless, without means’ < *apa-i̯t-cāra- (Paz. aβə̄cār, cf. Pers. بیچاره ‘helpless, poor’),

abēdād ‘unlawful, unjust’, subst. ‘injustice’ < *apa-i̯t-dāta- (Bactr. αβηλαδο, Armen. apirat ‘wicked, iniquitous, wrong, flagitious’).

ped ‘master; husband’ < *pati- (OPers. °pati-, Av. paiti- m., Skt. páti- m., Paz. vad),

darbed ‘door-keeper, hall-porter’ < *du̯ar[a]-pati- (Parth. barβaδ, Armen. darapet/ barapet),

dibīrbed ‘chief secretary’ < *dipī́ra-pàti- < *dipi-u̯ara-pati- (Skt. divirapati-, Sogd. dipīrpǝt, Armen. dprapet ‘head chorister, protonotary’),

muvbed ‘chief priest’ < *magu-pati- (Parth. maγbed, Armen. mogpet, movpet ‘archimagus’< *magú-pati-, cf. Turk.-Arab. مُفْت a so-called Muslim scholar),

spāhbed ‘commander-in-chief, general’ < *spā́da-pati- (Armen. sparapet ‘general in chief, generalissimo’).

reb/ rab ‘defective’ < *rapu- (Skt. rápas- nt. ‘bodily defect, infirmity, disease’, Sogd. rĕp ‘defectiveness’, rĕpu ‘defective, infirm’).

rōb-: ruft ‘to rub, sweep’ < *rau̯p-ai̯a-: *rufta- (Šuγ. růb-: rūvd, Yaγ. rup-, Bal. rōpag, Par. rūy-: rūt),

gyāgrōb ‘broom’ (Pers. جارو , جاروب, Yaγ. rōpc, rōpak).

rōb- : ruft ‘to rob’ < *rau̯p-ai̯a-: *rufta- , rōb ‘robbery, plunder’ < *rau̯pa-. A secondary form is rubāy- : rubūd (Paz. rə̄βud).

rōbāh z. ‘fox’ < *ráu̯pāθa- < *rau̯pāćá- (Skt. lopāśá- m. ‘jackal; fox’, Parth. rōbās < *rau̯pāsa-, Khot. rrūvāsa- ‘jackal’, Sogd. rōpas, Yaγn. rūpas, Khwar. rwbs, Bal. rōpāsk < *rau̯pāsa-ka-, rōpask, Osset. I rūvas, D robas, Šuγn. růpc, cf. Av. raopi- m. ‘fox’).

The voicing of *p after nasals and r and v:

ambag (also hambag) ‘conserve; jam; sauce’ < *ham-paku̯a- (Arab. انبج , cf. Skt. sam-pakva- adj. ‘made tender by boiling’).

carb ‘fat, unctuous; gentle, mild, smooth’ < *carp-a- (Khot. tcārba-, Sogd. carp, Osset. carv, Bal. čarp).

darbān ‘gatekeeper, porter, janitor’ < *du̯ar[a]-pāna- (Parth. barbān, Armen. darapan ‘doorkeeper, house porter, concierge’).

grīvbān ‘neck-guard, gorget’ < *grīu̯a-pāna- (Armen. grapan-ak ‘portfolio; ephod’, Pers. گریبان , Arab. جرّبان ).

hambišn ‘fellow-wife, co-wife, rival wife’ < *ham-pašnī- (Av. hapaθnī- f., Sogd. pǝnānc, Yaγ. pinānč, Šuγ. abīn, Pašt. bǝn), also habōg (Lakī hovū, Paz. xavō, Pers. هوو ).

kirb ‘form, shape, figure; body; flesh’ < *kǝ́rp- < *kŕ̥p- (Av. kǝhrp- f., Skt. kŕ̥p-, Armen. kerp ‘form, fashion, appearance’, cf. Lat. corpus).

Initial b may represent *p:

bār ‘bank, shore’ < *pāra- (Av. pāra- m., dūraē-pāra- ‘with distant borders’, Skt. pārá- m., nt., dūré pāré, Khot. pāra- ‘boundary’),

drayābār ‘seashore, coast’,

rōdbār ‘river bank’.

baškuz (also paškuz) ‘(female) giant bird; griffin’ < *pati-sku[n]-cī (Aram. pušqanṣā, pušqaṣṣā ‘female raven’, Armen. paskuč ‘γρύψ’).

3.5.3. Initial *m may become b especially when a nasal follows:

bāmbišn ‘queen’ < *māna-pašnī- < *dmāna-paθnī- (Av. nmānō.paθnī-/ G dǝmānō.paθnī- f. ‘mistress of the house’, Vr 3.3 nmānahe paθnīm, cf. Skt. mā́nasya pátnī- f., Armen. bambišn, bambišn tiknacʿ tikin ‘bambišn the mistress of mistresses’, Sogd. δβāmbǝn, β/pāmbušt, Pašt. merman-a ‘lady, mistress’).

¹bang (also mang) ‘magic potion’ < *mangă-, not to be confused with ²bang ‘henbane’.

3.5.4. Initial b can be the result of **du̯*:

bēš-: bišt ‘to hurt, torment; violate’ < *du̯ai̯š-ai̯a-: *du̯išta- (Av. t̰biš-/ daibiš-, t̰bišta-/°δbišta-, Sogd. δβēš-, Khot. duiṣṭä ‘hated’),

bēš ‘pain; affliction; hostility’ (Av. t̰baēšah-/ G dvaēšah- nt., Skt. dvéṣas- nt., Sogd. δβēš, Paz. bə̄š),

a-bišt ‘unharmed, not afflicted’ (Av. a-t̰bišta-/ a-δbišta- adj. ‘not antagonized’),

a-bēš ‘harmless; not-hostile; helpful’ (Av. a-t̰baēšah-/ G a-dvaēšah- adj., Skt. adveṣa- adj., Parth. anā-bēš, Paz. abə̄š).

Parth. bid, Pers. did ‘again, further’ < *du̯ita-,

bidaxš (lit. ‘second ruler’) ‘Grand Vizier’ < *du̯ita-xšai̯a- (Aram. bǝṭaḥšā/ pǝdaḥšā ‘high official, governor’, Armen. bdeašx/ bdešx ‘consul, mayor’).

Parth. bar, Pers. dar ‘door, gate’ < *du̯ar[a]- (OPers. duvara-, Av. dvar- m., Sogd. dβǝr-i, Yaγn. davar).

3.5.5. b < *u̯:

bārag ‘wall’ < *u̯āra-ka- (Av. vāra- m., Pers. بارو , باره ‘wall, rampart; fort; tower’), dīvār ‘fortress-wall, wall’ < *dida-u̯āra- < *díza-u̯āra- (Pers. دیوار , دیفال , دیوال ).

bīš ‘aconite’ (also vīš) ‘poison, bile’ < *u̯iš-a- (Av. vīša- nt. ‘poison; poisonous plant, aconite’, Skt. viṣá-, Paz. bə̄š, cf. Lat. vīrus).

brinj ‘rice’ < *u̯rinj-a- (Sogd. βrinj, Waxī gurunǰ, Armen. brinj ‘rice’, oriz ‘rice plant; oryza’ < *u̯rīza-, Gr. ὀρίνδης, Pers. bǝrinj, gurinj, cf. Skt. vrīhí- m.).

bun ‘tree’ = van < *u̯anā- (Av. vanā- f., Skt. ván-, vánā- f., Sogd. vǝna, Šuγ. wān ‘weeping willow’, Pašt. wana ‘tree’, Pers. بن),

Bun ī gōzag/ Gōzbun top. (Armen. Gozbon).

srub ‘lead’ < *sruu̯a- (Av. srva- nt. ‘lead’, srvō.zana- adj. ‘with a leaden chin’, Pašt. surup, Bal. suruf, Pers. اسرب , سرب ).

3.5.6. Sometimes b represents older *g:

babr ‘tiger’ < *u̯i̯agra- (Armen. vagr, cf. Skt. vyāghrá- m., Niya doc. vyagra-, Siṁh. vag).

Sufd/ Subd top. ‘Sogdiana’ < *sugda- < *suxθa- (cf. Av. suxδəm, suγδō°, Parth. Suγd, OPers. suguda-; Sogd. suγδīk ‘Sogdian’, Armen. sovdik°).

3.5.7. Clusters

abd ‘wonderful, marvellous’ < *abda- (Av. abda- adj., Parth. aβd, Paz. aβad/ aβat̰, Pers. افد , cf. Skt. ádbhuta- ‘marvellous’).

abdum ‘last, final’ < *ápa-tama-.

brih ‘fate, destiny’ < *briθu̯a-.

gabr ‘womb’ < *garba- (Av. garǝβa- m., Skt. gárbha- m., Parth. grăβ, Khot. garba-, Pers. گور ).

vabz ‘wasp’ < *u̯abzha- (Bal. gvabz/ gvamz, Yazdī bowz, Katī wušpī, Pers. بِز , cf. Av. vaβžaka-).

3.5.8. Epenthesis of b:

The sound b may be added to the interior of a word especially after nasals:

dumb (also dum) ‘tail’ < *dūma- (Av. duma-, °dūma-, Skt. lūmam nt., Sogd. δūmb-, Pašt. lǝm, Yidγa lum, Bal. dīm ‘back, hinder part’), dumbag ‘fat tail’ (Khot. dumaa-, Sogd. δumbē, Osset. D dumæg, cf. Skt. dumbaka- m. ‘fat-tailed sheep’, Lurī dumma, Bal. dummag, Pers. دنبه 'tail-fat’).

§ 3.6. d

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic d:

did ‘again’;

pedīx ‘satisfied, satiated, well-nourished’;

dūd ‘smoke’.

3.6.1. d comes from the voiced occlusive *d:

dabr ‘ash-coloured, dark, glaucous’ < *dabra- (Av. daβrāmaēši- pr. n. ‘having dark sheep’, cf. Arab. دبره کاو , کبرکاو , Gr. τεφρός ‘ash-coloured’).

dar ‘valley, ravine, glen’ < *dara- < *dholo- (Armen. dar ‘declivity, slope’, cf. Germanic *dalam ‘valley’),

darag ‘id.’ (ŠH darag: vēm), cf. Pers. درکه .

dām ‘net, snare, trap’ < *dāma- (Skt. dāman- nt.),

dāmag < dāma-ka- (Parth. dāmag, Sogd. δāmá, Pašt. lūma, Munj. lōmago).

²dast ‘able, capable’ < *das-ta-, also dastan (cf. Av. dąstvā- f. ‘science’ from dah/ dąh ‘to instruct’),

dastvar/ dastōr ‘empowered, having mandate; spiritual guide; canon; rule’ < *dasta-bara- (Parth. dastβar, Sogd. δǝstβarē ‘entitled person’, but Bactr. λιστοβαρο ‘original of a book’, Pers. دستور ‘original manuscript’, Arab. دستور ).

Note that ¹dast and ²dast are semantically converged .

dašn ‘right (hand, side, wing); southern’ < *dašina- < *dáćšina- (Av. dašina-, Skt. dákṣiṇa- adj., Sogd. δǝšn, Armen. dašn ‘contract, pact’).

dāšn/ dāšin ‘gift, present’ may be cognate with dašn (cf. Skt. dákṣiṇā- f. ‘a fee or present to the officiating priest’), if not it comes from *dāšna- < *dāθna- (Elam. daš-na, du-ra-maš-da daš-na, Parth. dāšin, < Aram. dšn, Arab. داشن , دواشن ).

dēm ‘face’ < *dai̯man- (Av. daēman- nt., Sogd. δēm, Pašt. lēmǝ m. ‘eye-ball’, Gīl. dīm),

handēmān ‘in front of, in the presence of; present’ (Paz. aṇdǝmąn).

dēs ‘form, shape, appearance’ < *dai̯sa- from *dai̯s-ai̯a- ‘to show, form, build’ (Av. daēsa- m., Skt. deśá- m. ‘spot, place, region’, Sogd. δēs ‘place’).

nazd ‘near, nearby’, adv. ‘about’ < *nazda- or rather *nazdii̯ah- comp. (Av. nazdyō comp. of ăsna- ‘near’/ OPers. ašna-, Skt. nédīyas- comp. ‘nearer’, Khot. naysda- ‘near’, Sogd. nǝzdu, Bactr. νοζδο, Pašt. niždē/ nizdē),

nazdist ‘nearest, first’ < *nazdišta- (Av. nazdišta-, Skt. nédiṣṭha-).

pazd- ‘to pursue, chase, drive away’ < *pazd-ai̯a- (Av. pazd-aya-),

pazd ‘chastisement’ < *pazda-

pazdgar ‘chaser’

gad ‘mace, club’ is possibly a loanword from Av. gaδā- (Skt. gadā-), its normal form is *gay.

3.6.2. d < d < z:

dāmād ‘bridegroom, son-in-law’ < *dāmātar- (Av. zāmātar- m. ‘son-in-law’, zāmaoya- m. ‘son-in-law’s brother’, Skt. jā́mātar-, Pašt. zūm, Waz. zīm < *zāma-, Yidγ. zamai).

dālman ‘lammergeyer, eagle’ < *darnu-mani- (Av. zarǝnu.maini- adj. ‘wearing a golden necklace’ an epithet of the kahrkāsa, cf. ṚV 1.33.8 cakrāṇā́saḥ parīṇáham pr̥thivyā́ híraṇyena maṇínā śúmbhamānāḥ).

¹dast ‘hand’ < *dasta- (OPers. dasta- m., Av. zasta-, Skt. hásta-, Khot. dasta-, Sogd. δǝst-i, Bactr. λιστο, Šuγn. δust, Pašt. lās, Yid. last).

dil ‘heart; breast’ < *dṛd- < *źṛd-ai̯a- (Av. zǝrǝd-, zǝrǝδaya- nt., Skt. hŕ̥d-, hŕ̥daya- nt., Parth. zird, Sogd. δǝrzē, Khot. ysära-, Šuγ. zōrδ, Bal. zird).

dōst ‘loving, friend’ < *dau̯štar- < *zau̯štar- (OPers. dauštar- m., Skt. joṣṭár- adj.).

3.6.3. An intervocalic *t generally becomes d (intervocalic lenition):

adan ‘incorporeal’, but atan if the compound is transparent (cf. Av. a-tanu°).

brād ‘brother’ < *brātā,

brādar ‘id.’ < *brātaram (OPers. brātar-, Av. brātar- m., Sogd. βrāt, βrātǝr, Bactr. βραδο, βραδαρο, Khwar. βrād, Yaγ. virōt ‘younger brother’, Osset. I ærvad ‘relative’, D ærvadæ ‘brother; relative’ Pašt. wrōr, Bal. brāt/ brās).

dad ‘wild animal’ < *dat-a- ‘toothed’ (Khot. data-, cf. Av. daitika- m. ‘non-domesticated animal’, Paz. dat̰, dad°, Sogd. δǝt-),

dād ‘tooth; age’ < *dātā- (Av. dātā- f.),

dādmeh ‘elder, of age; senior’ < *dāta-maθi̯ah-.

dād ‘law; canon law; justice; sacred law, Avesta’, adj. ‘lawful, legal’ < *dāta- (OPers. dāta-, Av. dāta- nt., Armen. dat ‘cause; justice; lawsuit, litigation’, Parth. dāδ, Bactr. λαδο, Aram. דָּת , Paz. dāt̰, Arab. داذ ),

dādestān (also dāyestān) ‘judgment, verdict, sentence; case, process, legal affair; law, rule; court; intention, purpose’ < *dāta-stāna- (Bactr. λαστανο > Khot. lāstana- ‘litigation, dispute’, Tokh. A lāstaṅk, B lastāṅk ‘executioner’s block’, Paz. dāestąn, cf. Pers. داستان ),

dādvar (also dāyvar) ‘judge, adjudicator; arbitrator’ < *dāta-bara- (Aram. דְתָּבְרַּיָּא ‘law officials’, Mand. dauar, Pers. داور ).

dahyubed/ dehbed ‘lord of the land, ruler’ < *dahi̯u-pati- (Av. daŋ́hu.paiti-/ daiŋhu.paiti- m., Paz. dǝhavat̰, Arab. دهوفذ).

dān ‘seed, grain, corn’ < *dānā- (Skt. dhānā́- f. pl. ‘grain’, Khot. dānā-, Sogd. δān),

dānag/ dāng ‘grain; small coin; small weight’ < *dā́naka- (Skt. dhānaka- m., Gr. δανάκη, Armen. dang/ dank ‘ὀβολός, penny, mite’, Sangl. δǝng, Tokh. B tāno, Arab. دانق ).

pedyār (also petyār) ‘adversary; detrimental’ < *paiti̯āra- (Av. paityāra- m., Paz. patyāra).

pid/ pit ‘meal, food; meat’ < *pitu- (Av. pitu- m., °piθβa-, Skt. pitú- m., Sogd. ǝpǝt, Osset. D fid, I fyd, Paz. pit̰/ pat̰), also pih ‘id.’ < *pitu̯a- (Av. °piθβa-, Skt. °pitvá-), cf. frabih ‘fat’ (Parth. frabīv).

rōdīg ‘intestine’ < *rau̯ti̯a-ka- (Khot. rrūta- ‘intestines’ < *rau̯ta-, Yaγ. rūta, Bal. rōθ, rōt ‘entrails, intestine’, Osset. I rūd, D rod ‘large intestine; sausage’, Pers. روده , cf. Av. uruθβan/r- nt. ‘intestines’, uruzdipāka- adj. ‘cooking intestines’ < *rudh-ti-),

rōdīgān ‘entrails’.

vād ‘wind; air; blow, breath, spirit’ < *u̯āta- (Av. vāta- m., Skt. vā́ta- m., Khot. bāta- ‘wind’, bātā-/bāti- ‘[the humour] wind’, Sogd. vāt, Yaγn. vōta, Osset. wæt, STātī vār, Bal. gvāt, Paz. vāt̰/ guāt̰, Pers. باد ).

vēd ‘willow’ < *u̯ai̯ti- (Av. vaēiti- f., Khot. bāga- < *u̯ai̯tā-kā, Osset. D wedagæ, Tokh. B witsaka, Pašt. wala, Bal. gēθ, Pers. بید ).

Zardušt pr. n. < *zarat-uštra- (Av. zaraθuštra- m.), also Zardrušt (cf. Gr. ζαραθρούστης).

3.6.4. The voicing of t after nasals and r:

abardan ‘arrogant’, but abar-tan if the compound is transparent < *upari-tanū-.

abardar ‘higher, upper, superior’ < *upara-tara- (Paz. aβardar), opp. ērdar ‘lower’ < *adari-tara- (Paz. ə̄rdar).

dandān ‘tooth, teeth’ < *dantan-, *dantānam (Av. daṇtan- m. ‘tooth’, daṇtānō nom. pl., vīmītō.daṇtan- ‘having deformed teeth’, Skt. dánt- m., Khot. dandaa, Sogd. δandāk, Osset. dændag ‘tooth; spoke’, Yaγn. dindak ‘tooth’, dindakkana ‘dentist’, Yid. lad, Bal. dantān, Paz. dandą, cf. Pers. دنده ‘rib; notch in a gear’).

durvand ‘deceitful, wicked, infidel’ < *drugu̯ant- (Av. drvaṇt- < *druγ-u̯aṇt-/ G drǝgvaṇt- < *drug-u̯ant- adj., Paz. darvaṇd).

gōspend ‘(small) cattle, sheep; beneficent animal’ < *gau̯-spanta- (Av. gaospǝṇta-, Kuhgīlūya gusend, Kum. γosen, Paz. gōspǝṇd).

mard/ mird ‘man, male person; (foot) soldier’ < *mártii̯a- (OPers. martiya-, Av. maṣya-, Skt. mártiya-, Sogd. mǝrtē, Bactr. μαρδο, Khwar. mrc),

mardōm/ mardōhm ‘man, mankind, human’ < *màrtii̯a-táu̯xman- (Sogd. mǝrtǝxmē/ mǝrdǝxmē, Paz. mardum).

zand ‘district’ < *zanH-tu- (Av. zaṇtu- m., cf. huzaṇtu-/ G hu-zə̄ṇtu- adj. ‘of noble birth’, Skt. jantú- m. ‘offspring’).

zard/ zerd ‘yellow, tawny’ < *zárita- (Av. zairita-, Skt. hárita-, Sogd. zertē, Šuγ. zīrd).

3.6.5. We find OPers. d alternating with Median/ Avesta z in a few words:

drayā ‘sea; river’ < *drai̯ah- also zreh < *zrai̯ah- (OPers. drayah- nt., Av. zrayah- nt., Skt. jráyas-, Sogd. zrē, Waxī dǝryō ‘river’, Pers. دریا ).

dahan/ dahen ‘mouth, opening, vent, orifice’ < *dafan-, also zafar < *zafan-/ zafar-, also dahān < *dafānam (Av. zafan-/r- nt., vī-zafāna- adj. ‘with wide-open mouth’, θrizafanǝm ‘having three mouths’, Paz. dahąn).

damb ‘shore; beach; edge’ < *damba-, also zamb (Parth. zamb, Sogd. zamb ‘shore’, Šuγn. zim/ zimb ‘side, flank’, cf. ŠKZ 24 drayā damb: zreh zamb: χείλους θαλάσσης), Zamb is also a place name (Armen. zamb, hrumazanb, Arab. زمّ ).

danag/ danūg ‘chin, jaw’ < *danu-ka-, also zanag (Av. zanava ‘both jaws’, Skt. hánu- f., Khot. ysanuva ‘jawbone’, Sogd. zǝnūk, Bal. zanūk, Parth. zanax, Pašt. zana, Šuγn. zingůn, Pers. زنخ ).

dān- ‘to know’ < *dān-a- (OPers. xšnā, dānā-, Av. xšnā/ zan, zānā-/ zān-, Skt. jñā, jānā́-/ jānī-, Sogd. zān-, Parth. zān-, Bactr. ζαν-, Osset. I zonyn, D zonun, Bal. zān-ag),

dānāg ‘knowing, wise’ < *dānāhka- (Paz. dānā), but frazānag ‘wise, sagacious’ < *fra-zāna-ka- (Parth. frazānag, Paz. faržąnaa),

adān ‘unknowing’ < *a-dāna- < *a-zāna-.

dimestān ‘winter’ < *dima-stāna- (Kumzārī dimestān, Paz. damastąn), also zimestān (Av. zyam-/ zim- m., Skt. himá- m. ‘cold, frost’, hímā- f. ‘winter’, Parth. zimag).

3.6.6. The change of ng to nd belongs to a later stage of the language:

abrand ‘splendour, majesty, pomp’, also abrang < *upa-Hranga- (Paz. auraṇg/ d, afraṇd), not to be confused with *abi-ranga- > Pers. آرنگ ‘colour; mode’. Cf. also abrang ‘eagerness, zeal’ < *upa-ranga- (from ranj, Av. raṇj-a-, Skt. ram̐h)

dagrand/ dērend/ dērang ‘long, tedious; long period of the present world; duration’ < *dargant- (Paz. də̄raṇg, Pers. دیرند),

drang ‘span, interval; delay’ has another formation < *dranga- < *dlongho-.

perind/ pering ‘monochrome damask, damask cloth’ < *pati-ranga- (Skt. pṛṅga-, priṅgā- ‘damask’, Sogd. pǝring, Arab. فرند , Pers. پرند ‘fine painted silk’).

Cf. also Pers. لنگ، دند lang/ land ‘penis’ (Skt. liṅga- nt. ‘sign, mark; male organ, Phallus’, Av. °iriṇga-), دند، دنگ dand/ dang ‘stupid’.

3.6.7. Old *nd is maintained (or, it may become nn):

Hind ‘India’ < *hindu- (OPers. hindu- m., Av. °hǝṇdu-, Skt. síndhu- m., f. ‘big river, sea’, Armen. snd, Lat. Indus). vind- ‘to find, obtain, discover’ < *ṷind-a- pres. (Av. vid, viṇda-, vista- ppp., Skt. vind-áti, vittá-, Pers. گندیدن , گندادن ).

3.6.8. d < *dṷ

dar (also dor) ‘door, gate; court; chapter’ < *du̯ar-a- (OPers. duvara-, duvarayā-maiy, Av. dvar- m., Skt. dvā́r- f., Khot. vara-, Sogd. δβǝr-, Parth. bar, Bactr. αλβαρο, Pašt. war, Armen. duṙn ‘door, entrance; sluice’, durkʿ nom. pl., Paz. dar),

darīg ‘courtier, court dignitary’ (cf. Skt. dauvārika- m. ‘porter’),

darīgbed ‘chief of the court’ (Gr. δαριγβεδούμ, Arab. دريجبذ ).

did/ dud ‘second; other’ < *du̯ita- (Parth. bid).

3.6.9. Clusters

drāy- ‘to speak (daēvic), clamour, talk nonsense, shriek’ < drād-ai̯a- < *zrād-ai̯a- (Skt. hrād-ate ‘to sound’, Paz. drāe-, Pers. زر زدن ).

dvār- ‘to run (daēvic), roam, rush’ < *du̯āra- (Av. dvara- pres., upa.dvāra imp. 2nd pers. sg.).

udrag ‘otter’ < *udra-ka- (Av. udra- m., Skt. udrá- m. ‘water animal’).

3.6.10. In loan words an intervocalic d is maintained:

dīdēm ‘diadem, crown, garland’ from Gr. διάδημα (Parth. δīδēm, Pers. دیهیم ),

dīdēmvar ‘crowned’.

garōdǝmān ‘heaven, paradise’ (also garōnmān, garasmān) from Av. garō.dǝmāna- nt.

§ 3.7. g

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic g:

gung ‘mute’;

lagām ‘bit, rein’;

sōg ‘grief’,

sagr ‘satiated’.

3.7.1. g < *g

¹gāh ‘place; seat, throne; court; position; couch; status’ < *gāθu- (OPers. gāθu- m. ‘place, throne’, Av. gātu- m. ‘way, road; place, room, seat’, Skt. gātú- m. ‘way, course’, Armen. gah ‘throne, seat’, Arab. جاه ).

²gāh ‘metrical line, verse-line; song’ (Av. gāθā- f. strophic form, a group of hymns of the same strophic form; hymn’, Skt. gā́thā- f. ‘song; verse, stanza; metre’).

³gāh ‘time; watch; term’ is a semantic extension of ¹gāh (cf. Vn 99 asna paṇca gātubyō ‘at the five watches of the day’).

gām ‘step, pace, stride; march’ < *gāman- (Av. gāman-, cf. Skt. ví-gāman- nt. ‘step, pace, stride’, Gr. βῆμα nt.).

ganz ‘treasure, treasury; store-house; chest’ < *ganza- < *gaźna- (Skt. gañja- m., Parth. gazn, Sogd. γǝzn, Armen. ganj, Gr. γάζα, Aram. גִּנְזָּא, Arab. کنز , کنج , Paz. gaṇž, Pers. گنج ),

ganz ī xvadāyān ‘treasure-house of kings’ (Armen. գանձս արքունի, Arab. خزائن الملوکية ),

ganzag ‘treasure-house’, top. < *ganza-ka- (Parth. gaznag, Hebr. גַּנְזַּךְ , Armen. ganjak šahastan, Sogd. qnzʾγ),

ganzvar ‘treasurer’ < *ganza-bara- (Elam. gán-za-ba-ra, gán-da-bar-ra < *ganda-bara-, Skt. gañja-vara- m., Parth. gaznβar, Sogd. γǝznβar, Armen. ganjawor ‘treasurer, receiver’, Aram. גִּזְבָּר, Paz. gaṇžubar).

gar/ ger ‘mountain’ < *gári- (Av. gairi- m., Skt. girí- m., Khot. gara-, ggari-, Sogd. γǝr, Bactr. γαρο, γειρο, Orm. girī, Pašt. γar, Munj. γār, Šuγ. žīr f. ‘stone; mountain’, Bal. gaṛ ‘abyss, precipice’, gaṛāmb ‘hole’, cf. Osset. I γærong, D γæron ‘ravine’).

gardan ‘throat, neck’ < *gartana-/ *u̯artana- (Av. vaṣana-, cf. Khot. gaḍaa-, Sogd. γǝrδ).

garm ‘warm; hot’ < *garma- (OPers. garma°, Av. garǝma- m. ‘heat’, Skt. gharmá- m., Khot. grāma-, Sogd. γǝrm, Osset. I qarm, D γar[m], Pašt. γarma).

gāv/ gō ‘cow, ox’ (OPers. gau°, Av. gao-/ gav- f. ‘cow’, m. ‘ox’, pl. ‘cattle; milk’, Skt. gáv-, Sogd. γāv, Bactr. γαο/ γαοι, Osset. I qūg, D γog, Bal. gōk < *gau̯-ka-),

gōdān/ gōštdān ‘bowl’ (Av. gaoiδi- m. ‘milk bowl’ < *gau̯-dhi-, gaoδana-/ gaodana- nt. ‘id.’ < *gau̯-dhana-, Skt. gó-dhi- m. ‘hair-receptacle’, Sogd. γōδāk/ γōδē ‘container, a measure’, Bal. gōdān, Pašt. γulanja, Pers. ‘a wide-mouthed jug’),

Gōš a deity, 14th day of the month < *gau̯-š/ *gāu̯-š (Av. gaoš/ G gāuš nom. sg., Skt. gáuḥ).

gēs ‘curl, locks’ < *gai̯sa- (Av. gaēsa- m., Skt. kéśa- m. ‘head-hair; mane’, Armen. gēs),

gēsvar ‘curly-haired, ringlet-headed’ (Armen. gisawor ‘long-haired; tailed comet’),

Vādgēs name of a mountain (Av. vāiti.gaēsa- m, Pers. بادغیس ).

giyāh/ giyāv ‘grass, herb, herbage’ < *gau̯-dāi̯u- (cf. Av. gao-dāyu- adj. ‘cattle-nourishing’, Bašākardī gīdāh, gīda).

gōr z. ‘wild ass, onager’ < *gau̯ra- (cf. Skt. gaurá- adj. ‘white, yellowish’, m. ‘a kind of buffalo’, Bal. gōraγ ‘white, grey’).

gōš ‘ear; angle’ < *gau̯ša- (OPers. gauša-, Av. gaoša-/ G gə̄uša- m., Skt. ghóṣa- m., Sogd. γōš, Kurd. gö, Sar. γōḷ, Osset. I qūs, D γos),

gōšag ‘corner’ < *gau̯ša-ka- (Paz. gōšaa).

hangām ‘time, phase, period’ < *ham-gāma- (Armen. angam ‘time’, Paz. haṇgąm, Pers. انگام , هنگام , cf. Sogd. niγām), cf. āvām.

jōg ‘yoke; bond; pair; conjunction’ < *i̯au̯ga- (Av. yaoγa- m., Skt. yoga- m., Bal. jōγ, Pers. یوغ ).

peygām ‘message’ < *pati-gāma- (Parth. padγām, Sogd. pǝtγām, Aram. ptgm, Mand. puγdāmā, Paz. pə̄dą, Pers. پیغام , پیام ).

Av. γ (< *g) is sometimes preserved –it could be pronounced [γ] or [g].

moγ ‘Magian priest’ from Av. moγu°, also muv < *magu- (OPers. magu- m., Pers. مغ ).

vōiγn from Av. vōiγnā- f. ‘inundation, flood’ (cf. Sogd. wγnh).

Initial cluster gr:

grīv ‘neck, throat; self, soul’ < *grīu̯ā- (Av. grīvā- f., Skt. grīvā́-, Pašt. grēwa/ grawa ‘collar bone’, Wanetsī gǝrwī ‘collar’),

grīvbān ‘neck-guard, hauberk’ < *grīu̯a-pāna- rendering Av. kuiris ‘neck-helmet’ < *kuris- (Armen. grapan ‘hem, list’, Pers. گریبان , Arab. جرّبان ).

griy- ‘to weep, lament’ < *gṛd-i̯a- (Bal. greγ, gireγ ‘to weep’, grēt ‘he wept’, cf. Av. gǝrǝz- pres. ≈ Pers. garz-).

3.7.2. An intervocalic k (intervocalic lenition), or the sound k in front of a vowel, usually becomes g:

gumēg ‘mixture’ < *u̯i-mai̯k-a- (Parth. vimēg).

magas ‘fly’ < *makasa- (Skt. maśáka- m. ‘gnat, horse-fly, mosquito’, Pālī makasa- ‘mosquito’, Yid. moγuso, Waxī maks, Bal. makask/ magisk, Paz. magaž).

nāmag ‘letter, writing, epistle, book’ < *nāma-ka- (Pers. نامه , Arab. نامق , نامج ).

nibāg ‘hostage; pawn’ < *ni-pā-ka- (Sogd. nǝpāk, Bactr. νιβαγο/ ναβαγο, Pers. نوا ).

nigan-: nigand ‘to dig, dig down; set in; bury; destroy’ < *ni-kan-a- (OPers. ni-kan ‘to destroy’, Av. ni-kan ‘to dig in’, Osset. nigænun ‘to bury’).

rēg ‘what is left (over), remains’ < *rai̯ka- (Bactr. ρηγο, Pers. ریگ , ری , مرده ریگ ‘left as a heirloom’, cf. Av. raēkō, raēxǝnah- nt. ‘heritage’ < *rai̯xnah-, Skt. rékṇas- nt. ‘inheritated possession’).

sugurr z. ‘porcupine’ < *sukurna- (Av. sukurǝna- m., Pašt. škōṇ, Bal. sīkun, sīxun, Kurd. sīxūr, Pers. سگر , سگرنه < sugurnag).

tārīg ‘dark; the dark one’ < *tanθrii̯a-ka- (Av. tąθrya-, Bal. tārink, Paz. tārīk).

3.7.3. The voicing of k after nasals and r:

andarg ‘in, between; against’ renderning Av. aṇtarǝ° < *antárǝ-ka-.

gurg z. ‘wolf’ < *u̯ṛka- (Av. vǝhrka- m., vǝhrkā- f., Skt. vŕ̥ka- m., vṛkī́- f., Bal. gurk).

kargās (also karkās) z. ‘vulture’ < karkāsa- < *karkāća- (Av. kahrkāsa- m. lit. ‘chicken-eater’, ‘large bird of prey’, Sangl. kargaz ‘eagle’, Bal. xargas, Sogd. carkǝs ‘vulture’ < *karkaća-, Pers. کرکس ).

marg ‘death’ < *márka- (Av. mahrka-/ G marǝka- m. ‘annihilation, ruin, death’, Skt. marká- m., Sogd. marc f., Bal. mark ‘death’, Osset. marg ‘poison’).

tang ‘narrow, tight’ < *tank-a- (Khot. ttaṃga- ‘thin’, Bal. tank ‘narrow’).

vāng ‘voice, sound, cry, call; tune’ < *u̯ánka- (Armen. vank/ vang ‘sound, voice; syllable; tune’, Bal. gvānk ‘sound, voice, echo’, Paz. vąg, Pers. بانگ ).

varg ‘leaf’ < *u̯arka- (Av. varǝka- m., Skt. valká- m. nt., Tab. valg, Pers. برگ ، بلگ ),

vargar ‘leaf; foliage’ < *u̯arka-ra- (Khot. bāggara-, Sogd. varkar, Parth. vargar).

vastarg ‘clothing, habit, garment, dress’ from vastar ‘id.’ < *u̯astra- and the suffix *-ka- (Av. vastra- nt., Skt. vástra- nt.).

vazurg (also guzurg) ‘great, big; grand’ < *u̯azṛka- (OPers. v-z-r-k /vazṛka-/, Sogd. vazark, Bactr. oazorko, Armen. vzurk ‘chief, principal’, Pers. بزرگ ).

xvarg ‘live coal, ember’ < *hu̯áraka- (Sogd. xarvē, Paz. xurg, Sarvestānī xorg ‘ember’).

3.7.4. The old final or middle ng is maintained:

angust ‘finger, finger-breadth; digit’ < *anguštă- (Av. aṇgušta- m. ‘finger, toe’, darǝγō.aṇgušta- adj. ‘having long fingers’, Skt. aṅguṣṭhá- m. ‘thumb’, Khot. haṃguṣṭa-, Parth. angušt, Sogd. angušt, Yaγ. unkušt, Paz. aṇgušt, Pers. انگشت ),

angustbān ‘finger-guard, finger-stall’ < *angušta-pāna- (Pers. انگشتبانه , انگشتانه , Arab. کشتبان ).

rang ‘colour; dye; sound; stratagem, trick’ < *ranga- (Skt. raṅga- m. ‘colour; theatre, stage’, cf. Osset. I rondz, D rædzæ).

3.7.5. *g preceding r may be maintained.

Final cluster gr:

anagr ‘infinite, endless’ (later anēr) < *an-agra- (Av. an-aγra- adj., aγra- nt. ‘summit, beginning’).

dagr ‘long; late’ (later dēr) < *dagra- < *darga- (OPers. darga-, Av. darǝγa-/ G darǝga-, cf. Skt. dīrghá-).

sagr ‘satiated, full’(later sēr) < *sag-ra.

šagr ‘lion’ (later šēr) < *šagru- < *šargu-.

tigr ‘arrow’ (later tīr) < *tigri- (OPers. tigra- adj. ‘pointed’, Av. tiγra- adj. ‘id.’, tiγri- m. ‘arrow’),

tigrāh ‘arrow-shot, bowshot’ < *tigrāθa- (cf. Skt. iṣvāsá- adj. ‘throwing arrows’, m. ‘archer’).

3.7.6. g < *u̯

Cluster gy < *u̯(i)i̯

gyāg ‘place, spot, room; passage (of a text)’ < u̯ii̯āka- (Sogd. vǝyāk, Paz. jā).

gyān (later jān) ‘breath of life, breathing soul, physical life’ < u̯(i)i̯-āna- (Av. vyāna- nt., Skt. vyāná- m., Paz. ją).

gu < **u̯i*

gugān- ‘to destroy’ < *u̯i-kān-ai̯a- (Av. vī-kānaya-, Parth. vigān-).

gugār-: d ‘to digest’ < *u̯i-gār-ai̯a- (Paz. guvār-/ guhār-, Pers. گواردن ).

gugāy ‘witness; evidence’ < *u̯i-kăi̯a- (Khot. bye, Parth. vigāh, Sogd. vicāvē, Armen. vkay ‘witness, voucher; martyr’, Paz. guβā).

gumāy-: gumād ‘to endure, suffer’ < *u̯i-măi̯a-: *u̯i-māta- (Parth. vimāy-: vimād).

gumēz-: gumixt ‘to mix; blend’ < *u̯i-mai̯c-ai̯a-: *u̯i-mikta- (Parth. vimēž-, Paz. gumə̄ž-: gumə̄xt),

gumēzag ‘mixture; what is mingled with’ < *u̯i-mai̯c-aka- (Paz. gumə̄žaa).

Gundifarr pr. n. < *u̯inda-farnah- (OPers. vindafarnah-, Gr. Ἰνταφέρνης, cf. ŠKZ 32 gwndply: wyndprn: γυνδιφερ).

gu < **u̯ṛ*

gul ‘flower; rose’ (also vard < *u̯arda-) < *u̯ṛda- (Av. varǝδa-, Parth. vār, Sogd. vǝrδ, Waxī gǝl, Arab. جل، ورد ).

gurd ‘hero’ < *vṛtV-.

gurdag ‘kidney’ < *u̯ṛt-ka- (Av. vǝrǝδka-/ vǝrǝt̰ka- m., Skt. vṛkkáu m. dual ‘kidneys’, Khot. bilga, Osset. I wyrg, D urg, Sanglēčī gul, wolk, Bal. guṭṭaγ, guṭṭiγ, Paz. gurdaa).

gurdīh ‘a defensive armour’ < *u̯ṛtii̯a- (cf. Av. varǝθa- m. ‘defensive armour’, Av. vārǝθman- nt. ‘defence’, Khot. baṭha ‘breastplate, cuirass’, Osset. uārt ‘shield’, Armen. vert ‘mail; stitch’).

gursag (also gušnag) ‘hungry’ < *u̯ṛš-i̯a-ka- (Av. varǝšya- adj., Sogd. vǝšn, Paz. gursaa, Pers. گشنه ).

gušn ‘male’ < *u̯ṛšna-.

3.7.7. Geminated gg:

jādag-gōb ‘advocate, intercessor’ < *i̯ātaka-gau̯ba- (Armen. ǰatagov ‘apologist, pleading’, Pers. جادنگو ).

jādūg-gōbišnīh ‘wizard’s spells’ < *i̯ātuka-gau̯bašnii̯aθu̯a- rendering Av. yātuxti- f. name of a sin.

3.7.8. g: x < alternations between k and x

jag (also jax) ‘sissoo (tree)’ < *i̯akā- (OPers. yakā-, Pers. جغ ‘ebon-tree’).

mēg ‘locust, grasshopper’ < *madakă- (Bal. madag, Pers. میگ ), mēx ‘id.’ < *madaxă- (Av. maδaxa- m., maδaxā- f., Bal. maδax, madag, Khwar. maθax, Orm. mēx, Bactr. μαλαχο, Armen. marax, Osset. mætyx, Pers. ملخ ).

sūrāg ‘hole, aperture, gap’ < *sūrākă- < *subrākă- , also sūrāx < sūrāxă- (Pašt. sūlāγ, Pers. سوراخ , سولاخ , Paz. sūrāe, sūlā).

3.7.9. Syncope of g

/g/ can optionally lose its velar closure in codas, but not in onsets:

šabag ‘(early) morning’ (Paz. šabaa, Pers. šaba).

gāh ‘position, place’ < *gātu-,

razmāh ‘battlefield; battle, fight’ < razm-gāh < razma-gātu- (Parth. razmgāh, Pers. رزمگاه ).

§ 3.8. j

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic j:

jāsmen ‘jasmine’;

lajan ‘black mud’;

kāj ‘pine’.

The voiced affricate j is essentially found in word-initial position.

3.8.1. *j is maintained in a few loan-words:

Jāmāsp (also Zāmāsp) < *jāmāspa- (Av. jāmāspa-/ G də̄jāmāspa-, Elam. za-ma-aš-ba, Gr. ζαμάσπης, Sogd. Zāmāsp, Pers. جاماس ).

jeh ‘(bad) woman, harlot; hussy; courtesan’ from Av. jahī-,

jahīg ‘id.’ from Av. jahikā- f. (Khot. jsicā- ‘girl’, Paz. jə̄, jaē, jihyą, cf. Pers. جنده ).

jīv ‘(consecrated goat’s) milk’,

jīvām ‘id.’ from Av. jīvya- adj. ‘living’ (gąm jīvyąm ‘fresh/ lively milk’).

3.8.2. The phoneme *i̯ is preserved in Parthian, while in Pārsīg, it becomes j:

jād ‘lot, share; legal share, cause, case; sake; a degree of sin’ < *i̯āta- (Av. yāta- nt., cf. Sogd. yātē ‘meat’ < *i̯āta-ka- ‘sacrificial share’, Yaγn. yōta ‘meat’),

jādag ‘share; cause’ < *i̯āta-ka- (Parth. yādag).

jadag ‘omen, fortune; accident’ < *i̯ata-ka- (Sogd. yatāk),

hujadag ‘of good omen, fortunate, μακάριος’ < *hu-i̯ataka- (Parth. huyadag).

jādūg ‘sorcerer’ < *i̯ātu-ka- (OPers. yātu- m. ‘sorcerer’, Av. yātu- m. ‘sorcerer; sorcery’, Skt. yātú- m. ‘sorcery; a kind of demon’, Sogd. yātūk ‘sorcerer’, Paz. jādu, jādvą),

jādūgīh ‘sorcery, witchcraft’ (Paz. j/zādvī).

jagar ‘liver’ < *i̯akar- (Av. yākarǝ, Skt. yákar-/ yakn- nt., Osset. igær, Yid. yēγǝn < *i̯akan-, cf. Khot. gyagarrä ‘liver’).

jām ‘glass, cup’ < *i̯āma- (Av. yama- m. ‘pottery vessel’, yāma- ‘pottery glass’, Sogd. yāmǝk),

jāmag ‘id.’.

jāmag ‘garment, clothing, garb’ < *yāmaka-.

jār ‘time, occasion’ < *i̯āu̯ar- (Parth. yāvar, Kurd. jār, jārān ‘formerly’, Paz. jāvar).

jask (also yask) ‘illness’ < *i̯aska- (Av. yaska- m., Pers. جسک ‘trouble’).

jāsmen ‘jasmine’ (Chin. 耶悉茗 /yē-xī-míng/, Armen. yasmik, Sogd. jāsmin, Arab. ياسمين ).

jašn ‘festival’ < *i̯ašna- (Av. yasna- m. ‘ritual’, Skt. yajñá- m., Khot. gyaysna-).

jāyēd adj. ‘eternal’, adv. ‘eternally’ < *i̯āu̯ai̯ta- (Av. yavaētāt- f. ‘eternity’, yavaētāitē dat. sg., Parth. yāvēd, Armen. yawēt, Pers. جاوید ),

jāyēdān ‘id.’ (Parth. yāvēdān).

jō ‘barley; beer’ < *i̯au̯a- (Av. yava- m., Skt. yáva- m., Sogd. yǝv-, Bal. jaw, jō, Par. žō ‘barley’, Osset. jæw ‘millet’),

jōrdā ‘corn; grain’, cf. Vd 5.52 yaomca aṣǝm anāpǝm: jōrdāg-iz ardag ī anāb (Paz. zōrdāe).

jōy-: just ‘to set in motion; blow (of the wind)’ < *i̯au̯da-: *i̯usta- (OPers. yaud-a- ‘to be in turmoil’, Av. yaoza- ‘to set in motion’, Parth. yōz-: yušt),

āyōz-: āyušt ‘to agitate, disturb’ < *ā-i̯au̯za-: *ā-i̯ušta- (Khot. āyauys-, Sogd. āyōz-).

jōy ‘stream, water-course, brook; irrigation-channel’ < *i̯au̯ii̯ā- (OPers. yauviyā- f. ‘canal’, Skt. yavyā́- f., Orm. ǰōī ‘water-course’, Par. žī ‘rivulet’).

jud ‘different, separate; opposite; anti-’ < *i̯u-tá- (Parth. yud, Paz. jat̰, in Aramaic Gaonic texts dzwd, cf. Skt. yutá- adj., Av. yūtō adv.), jud az ‘separate from; apart from; without’ (Parth. yud až, Pers. جز ).

juxt ‘pair, couple; yoked (with); even number’ < *i̯uxta- (Av. yuxta- adj. ‘yoked’, yuxti- f. ‘yoking’, Skt. yuktá- adj., Parth. yuxt, Pers. جفت ).

Some loan-words:

jabbu (or, jabgu) a title (Turk. yabğu, Chin. 葉護, Bactr. ιαβγο).

jehūd ‘Jew’ from Hebr. יְהוּדִּי (Parth. yahūd, Sogd. jǝxuδ, Paz. zuhud).

3.8.3. j < *zg

jah-: jast ‘to jump, leap; happen’ < *zgaθ-a- (Av. zgad, zgaδa-/ zgaθa- pres. ‘to gallop, dash’, cf. F 20 zgaθat̰: jast, Sogd. anzγad-: anzγast ‘to jump’ < *ham-zgad).

3.8.4. Later j < gy < **u̯ii̯*

jāy also gyāg ‘place’ < *u̯ii̯ākah- (Parth. viyāg, Pers. جای ).

jān also gyān ‘life, breathing soul, physical life’ < *u̯ii̯-āna- from *an ‘to breathe’ (Skt. vyāná- m., Paz. ją).

3.8.5. j < **ji̯*

jōy-: jūd (also jav-) ‘to chew, gnaw; swallow’ < *ji̯au̯a-i̯a-: *ji̯ūta- (Parth. žāv-, Sogd. žǝβ- ‘to bite’, Pers. جاییدن , جاویدن، جویدن ).

3.8.6. The word for ‘elbow’

āranj/ ārinj ‘elbow; joint’ < *āranc < *ăráθnika- (Sogd. ārinj, Yaγn. ōrinj, Sarik. yorn, Pers. آرن < *ārahn < *āraθn-i-), also ărešn < *arašni (OPers. arašni- ‘cubit’, Av. arǝθnå < *arǝθn-, frārāθni.drājah-, Skt. aratní- m., Awr. aražni, Pers. ارش ).

§ 3.9. f

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic f:

fšī ‘shepherd, pastor; farmer’;

zafar ‘mouth (daēvic)’;

nāf ‘family, people’,

naft ‘wet; naphtha’.

3.9.1. f represents the old phoneme /f/.

f < f < ph

kaf ‘foam; phlegm’ < *kafa- < *kapha- (Av. kafa- m., Skt. kapha- m., Khot. khavä, Sogd. koβ < *kafu̯a-, Yaγn. xaf ‘foam’, Osset. I xæf, D xæfæ ‘pus’, Sangl. xōf ‘foam’, Bal. kap).

vafr ‘snow’ < *u̯áfra- (Av. vafra-, Sogd. vafr, Khot. baura, Ard. bafr, Par. γarp, Sīv. várfe, Pers. برف ).

f < f < bh

nāf ‘navel; family; people’ < *nā́fa- ‘kin, family’ (Av. nāfa- m., Sogd. nāf ‘people, human kind’, Yaγ. nōf, Iās language in Hungarian nép ‘people’. It is cognate with *nābi- ‘navel; kin’, Skt. nā́bhi- f. ‘navel; near relation’),

nāfag ‘navel; centre, middle’ < nāfa-ka- (Khot. nehä ‘navel’, Armen. napʿak, Osset. D nafæ ‘id.’, Bal. nāpag, nāfag),

nāfbed ‘chief of the family’ < *nāfa-pati- (Armen. nahapet ‘head of a family, paterfamilias, patriarch’, a title in the Kharoṣṭhī inscr. of Seṇavarma: ṇavhapati ‘prince’, cf. Arab. نهابذه، نهبد ).

naft ‘wet; naphtha’ < *nafta- (Av. napta- adj., Sogd. nǝβd ‘wet’, Gr. νάφθα),

naftag ‘wet’ (Sogd. nǝβdē).

raf- ‘to attack, fight, violate’ < *raf-a- < *rṃbh-a- (Parth. raf-, Khot. rraph-, Sogd. rnβ- /raṁb-/, cf. Skt. rabh/ rambh ‘to act rashly’, rabhas- nt. ‘violence’).

vaf-: vaft ‘to weave’ (also vāf-) < *u̯afa-: *u̯afta- < *Hubh- (Av. vaf, ufya- ‘to weave [into a hymn], sing, praise’, vafu- m. ‘hymn’, ubdaēna- adj. ‘textile’, Skt. vabh, ubhnā́ti, Osset. wafyn, Bal. gvafaγ),

vāf ‘sheaf’ (Šuγ. wāb),

pāyvāf ‘stocking’ rendering Av. āθravana- nt., zandvāf ‘singer; nightingale’ (Sogd. zandvāc, Pers. زندباف ).

3.9.2. Clusters

fc < *pc

kafcag ‘spoon’ < *kapcaka- < *kápa-ca-ka- (Sogd. kǝpcăk, δʾwn ʾδry kpcky ʾnkwpyn ‘with three spoonfuls of honey’, Tabarī kaca, Pers. کفچه , کبچه ).

fr < *p/fr

frabih ‘copious, corpulent; fat’ < *fra-pitu̯a- (Av. frapiθβa- adj., Parth. frabīv, cf. Skt. pra-pitvá- nt.).

fradāg ‘morning; tomorrow’ (rendering Av. frayara- ‘early; forenoon, morning’ < *fra-ai̯ara-) < *fratāka- (Paz. fradā, Pers. فردا ).

framān ‘command, order; a degree of sin’ < *fra-mānā- (OPers. framānā- f., Sogd. fǝrmān, Bactr. φρομανο, φρμανο, Armen. hraman ‘command, injunction, leave, authorization’, Bab. J. Aram. hramān ‘command’, Paz. farmąn, cf. Skt. pramāṇa- nt.).

frasang ‘parasang, league’ < *frasaŋvha- < *fra-sahu̯a- (Sogd. fǝsōx, Gr. παρασάγγη, Pers. فرسنگ , فرسخ ).

frašn ‘question; riddle; inquiry; conversation’ < *frašna- (Av. frašna- m., Skt. praśná- m.).

fravad- ‘to be informed, understand’ < *fra-u̯at-a- (Av. fra … vātaya- caus. pres., Sogd. āvat- ‘to believe’, Armen. hawatkʿ ‘belief, creed, religion’ < *frāu̯at°).

frih or friy ‘dear, friend, beloved’ < *friθa- or *frii̯a- (Av. frya- adj. ‘dear, beloved, own’, fryā-tanū ≈ Skt. priyā́- tanū́-, Khot. bria-, Sogd. friy ‘dear’, friyāvī ‘love’, Av. friθa- adj. ‘dear’).

frōd adv. ‘down, downwards’ < *fráu̯at-ah (OPers. fravatah, Pers. فروذ , هور , فرو , cf. Skt. pravát- f. ‘slope of a mountain’).

frōšag ‘a sweetmeat of flour, butter, (almonds) and honey (or, sugar), beestings’ < *frau̯ša-ka- (Armen. hrušak ‘nougat, sweet paste’, Talm. Aram. aβrōšak, Pers. فروشه , افروشه , Gīl. xaršē),

šīr-frōšag ‘a dish made of yolk of egg, milk and syrup’.

xvarōfrān (also xvarbarān, xvarnivār) ‘sunset; the West’ < *huu̯ar-au̯a-prāna- (Parth. xvarnifrān < *huu̯ar-ni-prāna-, Armen. xorbaran, Pers. خاوران , خربران ).

zafr/ zufr ‘deep, profound’ < *jafra- < *ǰabh-ra- (Av. jafra- adj., jąnfnu- m. ‘depth, valley’ < *ǰambhnu-, Skt. gabhīrá- adj., Parth. žafr, Pašt. žawar/ ǰawar, Bal. jahl, Pers. ژرف ).

fr < *θr

Frēdōn pr. n. < *θrăi̯tau̯na- (Av. θraētaona- m., Armen. hruden, cf. Skt. traitaná- m. name of a deity).

fs < ps, pç

afsān ‘whetstone, hone’ < *upa-sāna- (Šuγ. pisēn, Yid. afsεno, Pers. افسان , cf. Skt. śāṇa- m. ‘whetstone’, Pers. سان ‘id.’).

afsāy-: afsūd ‘to enchant, protect by spell’ < *upa-çāu̯ai̯a- (cf. Av. upa-sru ‘to listen to’, Skt. upa-śru ‘to give ear to’, úpa-śruti- f. ‘rumour; a kind of supernatural oracular voice’).

afsōn ‘spell, enchantment, incantation, charm; magic’ < *upa-çau̯ana- (cf. Skt. śrávaṇa- nt.).

afsōs ‘mockery, scorn’ < *apa-çauça- (cf. Av. sraoθra- nt., Skt. śrótra-).

fš < *p/fš

afšān-: afšānd ‘to spread, sow’ < *apa-šānai̯a-.

drafš ‘flag, banner’ < *drafša- < *drapsa- (Av. drafša- m. ‘drop, droplet; banner’, Skt. drapsá- m., Armen. dròš ‘banner, flag, ensign, standard; statue’, Sogd. ǝrδǝšf ‘banner’, Yazd. dravš),

drafšag ‘banner; drop; name of an asterism’ < *drafša-ka- (Armen. dròšak ‘streamer on a crown, flap, lappet; hem’).

drafš- ‘to shine, blaze; be in agitation, tremble, vibrate’ < *drafš-ai̯a- < *drap-s- (Sogd. viδrafš- ‘to blaze’, Pers. درفشیدن , درخشیدن ).

kafšag ‘boots, shoes’ < *kafšaka- < *kapši-ka- (Armen. kòšik).

fš < *mš

afšār-: afšird/ afšurd (also hafšird) ‘to compress’ < *ham-šārai̯a-: ham-šṛta-,

afšarag ‘expressed juice’ < *ham-šara-ka- (Armen. òšarak ‘syrup, sweet drink’, Arab. افشرج , Pers. افشره ).

šafšēr/ šamšēr ‘sword, scimitar’ (also šufšēr, šifšēr) < *šanma-xšuri̯a- (cf. Av. šanman- nt. ‘blade’, Skt. kṣádman- nt. ‘carving knife’, kṣurá- m. ‘razor’. Parth. safsēr, Armen. šimšir, suser).

ft < *pt

āyaft ‘boon, gift of grace, favour; benefit’ < *āi̯apta- (Av. āyapta- nt., Paz. ayāft).

dibīruft ‘chief secretary’ (also dibīrbed) < *dipīrápati- < *dipi-u̯ara-pati- (Skt. divirapati-, Sogd. dǝpīrpǝt, Armen. dprapet, cf. ŠKZ 57 διβιρουπτ).

haft ‘seven’ (Av. hapta-, Skt. saptá-, Sogd. ǝβd, Yaγn. aft, Osset. avd, Bal. apt).

hazāruft a high-ranking official, ‘chiliarch’ (also hazārbed) < *hazārápati- <*hazahra-pati- lit. ‘chief of a thousand’(Armen. hazarapet ‘chief of a thousand men, Χιλίαρχος; steward, major-domo, intendant’, hazarawuxt, Gr. Ἁζαρέφθης).

kaf-: kaft ‘to fall, befall’ < *kap, *kap-a-: kap-tá-, *p in the present stem under the influence of the past stem becomes f (Osset. I xawyn, D xawun, Bal. kap-, Gīl. kaf-),

kaftag ‘fallen; trapped, caught’ < *kapta-ka-.

fragaf- oneself, descend’) < *fra-kafa- . pehikaf- ‘to fall upon; be pressed together’ < *pati-kafa-, pehikāf- < *pati-kāfa-.

naft ‘grandson; kindred’ < *napt-, napti̯a- m. ‘id.’ napti̯a-, naftī ‘grand-daughter’ < *naptī- f. (OPers. napāt-, Av. napāt-/ napt- m., naptya- m., naptī- f., Skt. nápat- m., naptí- f., cf. Av. nafšu-cā loc. pl. < *napt-su).

suft ‘shoulder’ < *supti- (Av. supti- f., Skt. śúpti-, Khot. suta- translating Skt. aṃsa, Šuγ. sĭvd, Yid. suvdo, cf. Alb. sup).

šift ‘milk’ < *xšu̯ípta- (Av. xšvipta°, Khot. ṣvīdä, Sogd. ǝxšiβd, Yaγn. xšift, Šuγ. ṣūvd, Zaz. šit, Pašt. šaudǝ, cf. OPers. σιπτα- in Ktesias σιπταχόρα and in Pliny psitthachora),

šiftag ‘sweet’.

ft < *mt

dušdaft ‘breathing with difficulty’ < *duš-dam-ta- (cf. Av. duždafǝδra- < *duž-dam-θra-?). See “The Verb”, 1.1.4.

3.9.3. The alternation of f and x:

frestar/ xrafstar ‘noxious creature, evil beast, reptile; monster’ (Av. xrafstra- nt., Paz. xaraβastar, cf. Bal. rastar ‘wild beast unfit for food’, syāheṅ rastar ‘wild swine’).

ft < *xt

juxt ‘pair, couple; yoked (with)’ (later juft) < *i̯uxta- (cf. Av. yuxta- adj., Skt. yuktá-, Parth. yuxt, Yaγ. šuft, Pers. جفت ).

riftag ‘emptied; sinful’ rendering Av. irixta- ‘left-over, remnant’ (Av. ric ‘to leave, let’, Skt. riktá- ‘empty, hollow’).

staft ‘hard, stiff; harsh; severe; fierce’ may come from *staxta- and *stafta- (Av. staxta-, Parth. estaft, Pers. سفت ; Skt. stabdha- adj. ‘firmly fixed’, Osset. D stavd ‘strong, thick’). We also have saxt ‘hard’ < *θaxta- (Parth. saxt, Xvar. θaγd).

fd < *xθ

Sufd/ Subd top. ‘Sogdiana’ < *suxθa- (OPers. s-u-gu-u-d, Av. suγδō°, suxδǝm, Pers. سغد ),

sufdīg ‘Sogdian’ (Sogd. suγdīk, sǝγudīk, Armen. sovdikʿ).

The word pedixšar ‘honour’:

It corresponds to Parthian padišfar. The Persian word could be originally pediš-xvar, and the second part, °far/ °xvar, cognate with Skt. svar- (cf. Skt. abhi-svár- f. ‘praise’).

3.9.4. The alternation of f and h:

kulāf/ kulāh ‘hat’ < *kurdu̯a-afi̯a- (Pers. کلاه ),

kulāfag ‘little cap; calyx; calpac’ < *kurdu̯āfi̯a-ka-.

zafar ‘mouth (daēvic)’,

dahan ‘mouth’ (Av. zafan/ r- nt., Paz. dahąn).

3.9.5. In the following example, f is original, while xv is borrowed from Avesta:

farr/ farrah (also xvarrah) ‘fortune, glory’ < *farnah- (OPers. °farnah-, vindafarnah- pr.n., Av. xvarǝnah-, Sogd. fǝrn ‘majesty, high rank’, pwtyʾkh prn ‘rank of Buddha’, Bactr. φαρο/ φαρρο, Khot. phārra ‘high position’, Osset. færnæ ‘happiness, well-being’, Paz. xvarǝhǝ),

farrox ‘fortunate, blessed’ < *farnahu̯ant- (Sogd. fǝrnxundē).

§ 3.10. x

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic x:

xurmā(g) ‘date’;

nāxun ‘nail’;

rox (also raxv) ‘rook, tower (in chess)’.

3.10.1. The voiceless fricative consonant x comes from the old phoneme x < k, *kh, **ku̯* before C:

axt ‘pain, suffering’ < *axti- (Av. axti- m., Skt. śīrṣ-aktí- f. ‘headache’, Armen. axtažēt ‘ill, vicious, sickly’).

baxt ‘divided, distributed’ < *baxta-,

baxt ‘destiny, fate’ < *baxti- from baj ‘to divide, distribute; assign’ (Av. baxta- adj., nt., Skt. bhaktá- adj., bhakti- f. ‘distribution, division’, Sogd. βǝγd).

draxt ‘tree’ < *draxta- < *drákta- ‘fixed, what is stable’ from *dranj ‘to fix, hold’.

hamuxs- inch. ‘to learn’ < *hamau̯k-sa-.

hamxāg ‘companion, fellow’ < *haxāi̯-a-ka- < *sakhāi̯- (Av. haxāy- m. ‘fellow’, Skt. sákhāy-, cf. OPers. haxā-maniša-).

haxt ‘thigh’ < *haxti- (Av. haxti- f., Skt. sákthi- nt.).

hixr ‘refuse; exudation from a corpse’ < *hixra- (Av. hixra- nt., Paz. hihir, cf. Khot. hīṣa- ‘filth’).

maxš (also magas) ‘fly’ < *maxš-(i-) < *makš- (Av. maxšī- f., Skt. mákṣ-, Sogd. muxšk ‘mosquito’ < *mašika- cf. Skt. mákṣikā- f. ‘fly’, Yid. maxšē, Kurd. miš).

raxš ‘brown; tan’ < *raxša- (Sogd. rǝxš ‘bay horse’, the horse of Rustam, Khot. rrāṣa ‘dark-colored’, Wax. rakṣ ‘grey, brown’, Armen. erašx ji ‘chestnut horse’, Gīl. raš ‘brown’, Kurd. ŗeš ‘black’).

spaxr ‘entertainment, revelry’ < *spak-ra- (Pers. سپرخی ).

taxl (also tahr) ‘bitter’ < *taxra- < *takra- (Skt. takra- nt. ‘butter-milk mixed with water’, Parth. taxl, Gīl. tal, Lakī tiyaḷ, Paz. tahal, Pers. تلخ ).

tōxm (also tōhm/ tōm) ‘seed; semen; family; race’ < *tau̯xman- < *tau̯kman- (OPers. taumā- f., Av. taoxman- nt., Parth. tōxm, Sogd. tǝxm, toxmē, Khot. ttīma, Bactr. τοχμανο, Armen. tohm ‘family, extraction, race, lineage’, Yaγ. taxm ‘seed, egg’, Wax. taγm, Pašt. tōma ‘seed’, Paz. θūm, tuxm, cf. Skt. tókman- nt. ‘young stalk, sapling’).

toxš- ‘to exert oneself, endeavour, strive’ < *tu̯akš-a- (Av. θβaxš-a- pres., Skt. tvákṣati, Paz. tuxš-).

văxš ‘voice, word; spirit’ < *u̯āxš nom. sg. of *u̯ac- (Av. vac- m., vāxš nom. sg., Skt. vā́c- f., vā́k nom. sg., Parth. vāxš, Paz. vaxš).

xān ‘source, spring’ < *xā́na- < *kHānH-a- (Av. xā- f., xąnya- adj. ‘of a spring’, Skt. khā́- f., Khot. khāha ‘well’, Pers. خا ‘sewer’),

xānīg ‘source’ < *xāni̯a-ka- (Paz. hānī, xānī).

xar ‘donkey’ < *xara- (Av. xara- m., xarā- f. ‘ass’, Skt. khára- m., Khot. khara-, Sogd. xǝr-, Bactr. χαρο, Bal. khar, xar, Kurd. ker, Osset. xæræg).

xašēnag ‘dove-coloured, dove’ < *axšai̯na-ka- (OPers. axšainaka- ‘turquoise’, Khot. aṣṣänaka- ‘dove’, Sogd. ǝγsēnāk, Tokh. B ekṣinek°, Osset. æxsinæg ‘pigeon’).

xēm ‘wound’ < *xad-ma- (Parth. xaδm).

xōy ‘helmet’ < *xau̯dă- (OPers. xaudā- f. ‘hat, cap’, tigra-xauda- adj. ‘wearing a pointed hat’, Av. xaoδa- m., Skt. khola- nt., Parth. xōδ, Pašt. xōl, Armen. xoyr ‘tiara, mitre, cap’, Arab. خوذة , Pers. خود ).

xrad ‘wisdom, intelligence’ < *xratu- (OPers. xratu-/ xraθu-, Av. xratu- m., Skt. krátu- m.).

xrīn-/ xir-: xrīd ‘to buy, purchase’ < *xrīna-: xrīta- (Skt. kri, krīṇā́ti, krītá-, Sogd. xǝrīn-: xǝrīt, Bactr. χιρ-: χιρδο, Khot. ggän-, ggändä ‘he buys’, Khwar. xn/ ʾxn, Orm. ṣen-, Yaz. xarn-, Paz. xar-).

xumb ‘jug, pitcher, kiln, large round pot’ < *xumba- < *khumbha- (Av. xumba-/ xuṇba-, Skt. kumbhá-, Tokh. A kump ‘jar’, Arab. خبّ , Pers. خم , خنب , cf. Gr. κύμβος m., κύμβη f.).

The word ēx :

ēx ‘ice’ < *ai̯xa- (Av. aēxa- nt., Waxī yix̌, Yaγ. īx, Paz. yah, Pers. یخ , cf. Šuγ. iš ‘cold’).

3.10.2. x < *h

xāk ‘dust, earth; soil’ < *hā́hk < *ā́haka- (Skt. ā́sa- m. ‘ashes, dust’, Pers. خاک، آهک).

xayūg ‘slaiva, spittle’ < *hazdu-ka- (Sogd. xǝzdūk, Pers. خیو , خذو . Cf. Skt. syédu- m. ‘mucus’).

xēm ‘character, disposition; morale; personality’ < *hai̯a-m (Av. haya- nt., haēm, Paz. xīm).

¹xēn (also ¹hēn) ‘(hostile) army’ < *hai̯nā- (OPers. hainā- ‘[enemy] army’, Av. haēnā- f., Skt. sénā- f., Khot. hīnā- ‘army’).

xēndag ‘ill’ < *hai̯au̯antaka- (cf. Sogd. γyntwh, Armen. hiwand).

xōg ‘disposition, habit, temperament’ < *hau̯a-ka- (Pers. خوی ).

xūb (also xob) ‘good, fair’ < *húu̯-apah- (Av. hvapah- adj. ‘of good work, beneficent’, Skt. suv-ápas-, Khwar. xūβ, Sogd. xūp, cf. Bactr. χοβο).

xūg (also hūg) z. ‘pig’ < *hū-ka- < *suH-ka- (Av. hū-, Parth. hūg, Osset. D xu, I xŭ or xwy, Bal. hīx/ hīk ‘swine’, Pers. خوک , cf. Skt sūkará- m. ‘wild boar’).

xuzārag/ xuzārak ‘little, small, few’ < hucāra-ka-(ka-) (OPers. hucāra-, Pers. خجاره ).

x < h < *θ

zaxm (also zahm) ‘wound’ < *ǰaθma- (Parth. žahm/ žaxm, Pašt. zam ‘wounded’).

ox < *ahu or *ahu̯

ox/ ahu (also axv) < *ahu-, *ahu̯ā- (Av. ahu- m. ‘existence, life, world’, aŋvhā-/ ahvā- f. ‘life, spirit, vital breath’, Skt. ásu- m., Sogd. ox),

dušox or dōšaxv ‘hell’ < *dauš-ahu̯a- from duš-ahu- ‘having a bad life’ (Av. daožaŋvha- nt., Parth. dōžax, Armen. džoxk̕ ‘hell; limbo; sepulchre, tomb’, Bal. dōžī, Paz. dōžax, Pers. دوزخ ).

nox (also naxv) ‘beginning, first’ < *nahu̯a- (Armen. nax ‘first, foremost, premier’, naha°),

naxvēn ‘first’ < *nahu̯ai̯na-,

naxvist ‘first; beginning’ < *nahu̯išta- (Paz. naxust),

naxvrēg ‘first-born’ < *nahu̯a-rai̯ka- (Pers. نخری ),

noxvīr ‘first man’ < *nahu̯a-u̯īra-.

soxan (also saxvan) ‘word, speech, saying; precept, trial; topic’ < *sahu̯an- (Av. săxvan/r- nt., Bactr. σαχοανο, σαχονο),

pesox/ pāsox ‘answer’ < *păti-sahu̯an- (Armen. patasxan a legal term ‘rejoinder, reply, answer; return’, patasxanel ‘to reply; defend’).

°āx < **āhu̯*

vistāx (also vistāh) ‘confident’ < *u̯išta-ahu̯ā- (Parth. vistāf, Armen. vstah, Pers. گستاخ، بستاخ ).

3.10.3. x < *u̯

xiyār ‘cucumber, gourd’ < *u̯i̯āra- (Khot. byāra- ‘gourd’ rendering Skt. ervāru- m. f. ‘Cucumis utilissimus’, Armen. xiar, xiaruk, cf. Skt. B guyara-, urvārū́- f. ‘pumpkin plant’, Khwar. vyāruç ‘pumpkin’).

Two words for ‘blood’:

xūn ‘blood’ < *u̯ahuna-, *u̯ahunĭ-,

guxrūn ‘blood’ < *u̯ixrūni̯a- (Av. vohunī- f. ‘blood’, xrŭnya- adj. ‘bloody’, xrūra- adj. ‘bloody, blood-stained’, Skt. krūrá- adj., Khot. hūnä, Parth. guxn, Sogd. xornĭ, yoxni, yǝxvǝni, yǝxvǝrni, Yaγn. waxǝn, Šuγ. wixin, Sīv. fīn, Par. hīn, Zaz. gūnī).

3.10.4. xm < *fm

daxmag ‘burial mound, tomb; tower of silence’ < *dafma-ka- < *dhabhma- < *dhṃbhmo- (Av. daxma- m., Bactr. λαχμιγο, Parth. dahmag/ daxmag),

daxmagestān/ dahmayān ‘graveyard’

3.10.5. Prothesis of x

Some cases of non-etymological x, which have sporadically developed before a vowel, may be noted:

xām ‘raw, crude, uncooked’ < *āma- < *(H)ōmó- (Skt. āmá- adj., Khot. hama-, Osset. xom, Pašt. ōm/ ūm, Armen. hum, Bal. hāmaγ, āmag, Lakī xom).

xāyag ‘egg’ < *āu̯i̯a-ka- (Av. aoya-, aēm acc. sg., Khwar. yāg, Par. ēx, Sangl. ākik, Yaγ. xōya ‘testicles’, Osset. I ajk, D ajkæ, Bal. haik, aig, Pers. خایه , cf. Lat. ōvum).

xēn ‘wrong, small sin’ < *ai̯nah- (Av. aēnah- nt. ‘mischief, sin’, Skt. énas- nt., Paz. xīn, cf. Tokh. A enāk, B ainake ‘vile’).

xēšm ‘anger, wrath’ < *ai̯šma- (Av. aēšma-, Paz. xašm, Pers. هیشم , خشم ).

xišt ‘brick’ < *išti̯a- (OPers. išti- f., Av. ištya- nt., Skt. iṣṭakā- f., Parth. hištīg, Tokh. B iścem ‘clay’).

The case of *ṛ:

xir/ xīr ‘thing, matter, property’ < *Hṛi̯a- (Khot. hära ‘thing; wealth’, Parth. īr, Armen. ir ‘thing, affair, fact’).

xirs ‘bear’ < *Hṛša- (Av. arša-, Skt. ŕ̥kṣa-, Sogd. ǝšša, Šuγ. yūrx̌, Zaza xēc, Tab. āš).

ātaxš (also ātaš ‘fire’) < *ātṛ-š (Av. ātarš, Pers. آتش ).

xišt (also aršt glossed by nēzag) ‘spear’ < ṛšti- (OPers. a-r-š-t-i-š nom. sg. f. ‘spear’, a-r-š-t-i-k ‘spearman’, a-r-š-t-i-b-r ‘spear-bearer’, Av. aršti- f., darǝγārǝšti- ‘with a long spear’, ārǝštya- nt., ārǝštyō.barǝzah- adj. ‘having the height of a spear’, Skt. ṛṣtí-, Khot. hälśti, Khwar. ašc, Armen. xišt ‘lance, spear, staff’, ašteay ‘lance, spear, pike; javelin, dart’, Pers. خشت ‘small spear’).

3.10.6. The toponym Baxl:

Baxl ‘Bactria’ < *bāxδrī- < *bāxθrī- (OPers. b-a-x-t-r-i-š, Elam. ba-ak-ši-iš < OPers. *bāxçiš, Av. bāxδī-, Skt. bālhi-/ bāhli-, vāhli-, Bactr. βαχλο, Armen. bahl, Pers. باختر , بلخ ).

§ 3.11. xv

xv (Parth. vx) may be considered as a separate phoneme.

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic xv:

xvašāb ‘pearl-like; pearl’;

naxvist ‘first’;

axv ‘existence, life, spirit’.

3.11.1. (Initial) xva represents the sequence **hu̯a* or **hu-a*:

naxvad bot. ‘pea; chickpea’ < *nahu̯ata- (Sangl. naxǝδ, Khowar. naxoi, Gīl. naxut).

xvābar ‘beneficent, clement’ < *hu̯āpara- < *hu-āpara- (Av. xvāpara- adj., Paz. xvāβar).

xvad ‘self, own’, adv. ‘indeed; in person’ < *hu̯atah (Av. xvatō adv. ‘by itself’, Skt. svatas adv., Khot. hvatä adv., Parth. vxaδ, Sogd. xut, Bactr. χοαδο, Osset. I xæd, D xwæd, Bal. vat, Paz. xvat̰),

xvadād ‘of its own directions’ < *hu̯a-dāta- (Av. xvaδāta- adj.),

xvadkām ‘self-willed, acting willingly’ < *hu̯átah-kāma- (Bactr. χοακαμο, χογαμο, Paz. xvat̰ kām),

xvadrōšn renders Av. xvā.raoxšna- adj. ‘endowed with its light’.

xvadāy (also xvadāvan) ‘lord; master; sovereign, king’ < *hu̯a-tā́u̯i̯a-/ *hu̯a-tā́u̯an- (Parth. xvaδāvan, xvaδāy, Sogd. xutāv, xudāv, Bactr. χοαδηο, Paz. xvaδāe, Pers. خدای , خدیو ).

xvafs-: xvaft ‘to sleep’ < *hu̯apsa-: *hu̯apta- (Av. xvap, xvafsa- inch. pres. ‘to go to sleep’, xvapta- ppp. ‘asleep’, Skt. svápiti, suptá-, Parth. vxasp-, xvasp-: xvaft, Sogd. ōfs-: ōβd, Yaγn. ufs-: ŭfta, Khot. hūs-: hūta-, Osset. I xŭssyn or xwyssyn: xŭst, D xussun, Bal. vafs-, vaps-, Gīl. xūs-: xūt, Pers. خسپ ، خفتن).

xvah ‘sister’ < *hu̯ahar-, *hu̯ahā,

xvahār/ xvār < *hu̯ahāram (Av. xvaŋhar- f., Skt. svásar- f., svásāram, Sogd. xvār, Yaγ. xvōr, Parth. vxār, Bactr. χοαυο, Khot. hvar-, Osset. I xo, D xŭæræ, Bal. gvahār, gvār, Lakī xoya, Gīl. xāxur, Pers. خواهر ).

xvăh-: xvast ‘to trample; thresh; strike (money)’ (Av. xvaŋhaya- pres., xvasta- ppp., Khot. hvaittä, hvastä, Sogd. xvāy-: xust, Khwar. uxvāh-, xāst, Šuγ. xay-: xūst, Osset. I xoin, xost, Pers. خوست ),

peyxvăh- : peyxvast ‘to kill’ (Sogd. pǝxvāy- : pǝtxust, Pers. پیخست ).

xvăh-: xvast ‘to study, memorize ; serve’ < *hu̯-ah-ai̯a-: *hu̯asta- (cf. Av. aiβi-ah).

xvāh- (also xvāy-): xvāst ‘to want, seek, wish, demand, request; summon; make an application; claim’ < *hu̯ādai̯a-: *hu̯āsta- (Parth. vxāz-: vxāšt < *hu̯āzai̯a-: *hu̯āšta-, Sogd. xvēž-, Bactr. χωζ-, Kirmānī xvāh-ūn ‘suitor, wooer’, Gīl. zan-xāz-ī ‘suit, wooing’, Armen. xoyz ‘search, inquest, examination’).

xvahr/ xvahl (also vaxr) ‘crooked, twisted; absurd, false’ < *hu-u̯axra- (Yazdī xal, Tātī xol, Lurī val, Lakī hoval, Pers. خوهل . cf. Skt. vakrá- adj. ‘crooked, curved, bent, oblique’).

xvān-: xvand ‘to call, invoke, summon, read’ < *hu̯ān-ai̯a-: *hu̯anta- (Av. xvana- pres., Skt. svan-áyati, Bactr. χοην-/ χοαν-: χοανδο, Osset. I xonyn, D xonun ‘to call’, Bal. wān- ‘to read, study’, Paz. xvąn-), xvan- intr. ‘to be called, be read’ < *hu̯an-i̯a- (Khot. hvañ-, Sogd. xvǝn-).

xvān ‘communion meal; cloth set with food, table, tray’ < *hu̯āna- (Sogd. fān),

xvān-sālār ‘table-decker’.

Xvanirah name of a continent, rendering Av. xvaniraθa- nt.

xvar-: xvard ‘to take, eat’ < *hu̯ar-a-: *hu̯arta- (Av. xvar, xvara- pres., °xvarǝta-, Parth. vxar-, also āxvar-, Khot. hvar-: hvaδa, Sogd. xvǝr-: xvǝrd-, Bactr. χοαρ-: χοαρδο, Osset. I xæryn, D xærun, Šuγ. xar-, Bal. war-),

xvāl/ xvār ‘food’ renders Av. xvarǝθa- nt. (Khwar. xvār ‘meat’),

xvardīg ‘food’ < *hu̯arti-ka- (Av. xvarǝti- f., Khot. hvīδa- ‘food’, Armen. xortik ‘dish, food’, Pers. خوردی , Arab. خرديق a kind of broth).

xvāl/ xvār ‘sweet, savoury’ < *hu̯ardu- < *hu̯arzu- (cf. Osset. xorz I, D xwarz ‘good’, Armen. axorž ‘pleasant, savoury, agreeable, delicious’, Bal. awarzā ‘pleasing, agreeable’),

xvārist (Av. xvarǝzišta- adj. ‘sweetest’).

xvar ‘sun’ < *huu̯ar- < *suHan/r- (Av. hvarǝ/ G hvarə̄ nom.-acc. sg., Skt. svàr- nt., súvar, Sogd. xvǝr, xor, Šuγ. xīr m., Waxī yīr, Yaz. xǝwůr, Paz. xūr),

xvarumand ‘sun-like’, name of a mount (Av. xvanvaṇt-/ xvə̄nvaṇt-, Skt. svàrvant-),

xvar(x)šēd ‘sun’ < *huu̯ar-xšai̯ta- (Av. hvarǝxšaēta- nt., Paz. xvaršə̄t̰).

xvar (also xvarm) ‘wound, sore’ < *hu̯ara- (Av. xvara- m., cf. Pers. خارش ).

xvāhr/ xvār ‘easy; well-being, comfort’ < *hu̯āθra- < hu-āθra- (Av. xvāθra-),

dušxvār (also dušvār) ‘disagreeable, difficult; bothered’ (Armen. džuar ‘difficult, hard, vexatious, incommodious’).

xvarag ‘food; a measure (of wine)’ < *hu̯araka- (Av. xvar- adj. ‘eating’, Pers. خوره , cf. Yaz. xvarag ‘hungry’).

xvarg ‘live coal, ember’ < *hu̯áraka- from *hu̯ar ‘to burn’ < *su̯el (Sogd. γrwy /xarvē/, Paz. xurg, Sīvandī هُویره ‘ashes’, Kirmānī xol, Sarvestānī xorg ‘ember’, Tabarī fol ‘ashes’, Gīl. foluγ 'ember').

xvaran (or xvarn) ‘meal, banquet; a measure (of wine)’ < *hu̯árana(h)- (Av. xvarǝna- nt., xvarǝnah- nt., Parth. āxvaran),

xvarngāh ‘banquet hall, mess’ (Pers. خورنگه , خورنه , Arab. خورنق < *hu̯áranaka-).

xvarāsān ‘sunrise; the Levant’ < *huu̯ar-ā-sān-a- (Pers. خراسان ).

Xvārazm top. ‘Chorasmia’ < hu-ări̯á-zam- ‘good Aryan land’ (OPers. u-v-a-r-z-mi-i-y, Av. xvāirizam-, Gr. χωρασμίη).

xvāstavān ‘confessing’ < *hu-āstau̯āna- (Parth. vxāstvān).

xvaš ‘pleasant, sweet, nice; well-behaved’ < *hu̯arša- (Parth. vxaš),

xvašn or xvašan ‘taste, pleasure’ (Parth. vxašn, Pašt. xwand).

xvēh-: xvist ‘to pursue’ < *hu̯ai̯θai̯a- < *hu̯ai̯dai̯a-, translating Av. vi, vaya-.

xvēhišn ‘pursuit’ translates Av. vī-.

xvēš/ xvēbaš ‘own, self; kin, relative; possession’ < *hu̯ai̯paθi̯a-, *hu̯aipatii̯ai ‘for oneself’ (OPers. huvāipašiya-, Av. xvaēpaiθya-, Parth. vxēbēh, Sogd. xēpǝθ, Yaγ. xēp, Šuγ. xubaθ, Pašt. xpal, Tokh. B waipecce ‘possession’, waipte ‘separately’, Paz. xvə̄š),

xvēštan ‘self; personally’ < *hu̯ai̯paθi̯a-tanū- (Av. xvaēpaiθe.tanū- f., Paz. xvə̄š tan).

xvis-: xvist ‘to sweat, perspire’ < *hu̯ĭsa-: *hu̯ista- (Av. xvid, xvīsa- inch. pres., Skt. svedate, svidita-, Sogd. xvis-, Khot. ā-hus-, Pers. خیس ),

xvēy ‘sweat, perspiration’ < *hu̯ai̯da- (Av. xvaēδa- m., Skt. svéda- m., Khot. hvī, Osset. I xīd, D xed, Bal. hēd, Pašt. xwala, Waz. xēla, Paz. xvae, Pers. خوی ).

3.11.2. xv < hv < θβ < **tu̯*

nixvar-: nixvurd ‘to be in a hurry, hurry; hasten’ < *ni-θβar-a-/ *nitu̯ar-a-: ni-θβṛta-/ nitu̯ṛta-,

nixvār-: nixvārd ‘to make haste, hurry up, accelerate; incite’ < *ni-θβār-ai̯a- (Parth. niδfār-: niδfurd, Paz. naxvār-, cf. Av. θβāṣa-, Skt. tvarate, tvarita- adj. ‘hasty, swift’).

§ 3.12. š

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic š:

šādurvān ‘royal curtain; parasol’;

vēšag ‘forest’;

kiš ‘line; furrow’,

kašk ‘dried whey’.

3.12.1. š represents the old phoneme š that comes out of ć, ćš , j́, or *s.

ašt ‘eight’ < *aštă (Av. ašta, Skt. aṣṭā́/ aṣṭáu, Parth. hašt, Bactr. αταο, Pašt. at, áta, Yid. aščó).

aštag ‘emissary, messenger’ < *ašta-ka- (Av. ašta- m.).

drafš ‘banner, flag’ < *drafša- < *drapsa- (Av. drafša-, Skt. drapsá-).

frašn ‘question; riddle’ < *frašna- from *fras (Av. frašna- m., Skt. praśná-).

gōšt ‘meat; milk’ < *gau̯š-t-i̯a- (or *gau̯-xš-ti-) (Khot. ggūśta-, Bal. gōžd ‘flesh, meat’).

handēš- ‘to reflect; worry; plot’ < *ham-dai̯sai̯a- < *°dai̯ć-ai̯a- (Av. haṇdaēsaya- pres. ‘to bear in mind’, Parth. andēš-, Paz. aṇdə̄š-).

hāvišt ‘disciple, pupil’ < *hāu̯išta- (Av. hāvišta- m., Pers. هوشت , cf. Khot. biṣṭa-).

māš bot. ‘pea, bean’ < *māša- (Skt. mā́ṣa- m. ‘bean’, Armen. maš ‘pea, black or green gram’, Šuγ. max̌).

mūš ‘rat’ < *mūš- < *mús- (Av. mūš-, Skt. mū́ṣ-, Khot. mū-la- ‘rat’).

mušk ‘musk’ < *muška- (Bal. misk ‘musk’, Arab. مسك , cf. Skt. muṣká- m. ‘testicle, scrotum’, Khot. mūla- ‘testicle’).

mušk ‘mouse, rat’ < *muška- < *mus-kó- (Bal. mŭšk, cf. Osset. I myst, D mistæ).

mušt (also must) ‘fist, clenched hand’ < *mušti- (Av. mušti°, Skt. muṣṭí- m.f., Khot. muṣṭu, Šuγ. mut).

pašt (also pašn) ‘binding promise, bond, agreement, contract; pact; compact’ < *pašti- from pas ‘to bind’ (Bactr. παþτο),

paštag ‘pact’ (Parth. paštag ‘bound’).

riš-: rišt ‘to be wounded’ < *riši̯a-: rišta-,

rēš- ‘to wound’ < *rai̯šai̯a- (Av. irišya- pres., raēšaya- caus. pres., irišta- ppp., Skt. riṣya°, reṣáy°, riṣṭá-, Osset. I rīssyn, D resun, I rīs ‘pain’, Bal. rēš ‘wound’).

suš ‘lung’ < *suši- (Av. suši- f., Khot. suvä’ ‘lungs’, Osset. I sus, D sos, Kurd. šōs, sī, N baršōšk ‘heartburn’, Pers. شش , شوشه , سوشه , cf. Skt. śvas 'to blow, snort, hiss').

uš ‘intelligence’ < *uš- (OPers. uš-ī nom. du., Av. uš- nt., uši, Khot. uī Paz. hōš, Pers. هش، هوش ).

3.12.2. š < *ćš

cašm ‘eye’ < *cašman- < *čáćšman- (OPers. cašman- nt., Av. cašman-).

dašn ‘right (hand, side, wing); southern’ < *dašina- < *dáćšina- (Av. dašina-, Skt. dákṣiṇa- adj.).

kaš ‘armpit’ < *kaša- < *káćša- (Av. kaša- m., Skt. kákṣa- m., Sogd. ǝpkǝš- ‘side’ < *upa-káša-, cf. Skt. upa-kakṣá- adj. ‘reaching to the shoulder, being under the armpit’, Yaγ. kapaš ‘arm, embrace’, Tokh. A kaṣ, B keṣe),

dast ēr-kaš ‘hands under the armpits (in respectful salutation)’ (N 85 aδairi kašaēibya).

pašm ‘wool’ < *pašman- < *páćšman- (Skt. pákṣman- nt. ‘eyelash’, Bal. phažm, cf. Av. pašna- nt.).

šāx/ šāg ‘horn’ < *ćšākhā- (Sogd. šʾγh, Šuγn. xâṣ̌ ‘horn’, Bal. šāx ‘horn’, Pers. شاخ , شغ ),

sāx/ sāg ‘branch’ < *ćākhā-, Šuγn. xǟx̌ ‘branch’ (Skt. śā́khā- f., Armen. c̕ax ‘branches; furze; brushwood’, Arab. ساق ).

These two words are mingled.

šagr/ šēr z. ‘lion’ < *šagru- < *ćšargu- (Parth. šarγ, Khot. sarau, Sogd. šǝrγu, Paz. šə̄r).

tāš- ‘to fashion, create’ < *tāš-[a-] < *tā́ćš-/ táćš- (Av. taš, tāš- pres., tašta- ppp., Skt. takṣ, Khot. ttäṣ-, Sogd. tāš-, Parth. trāš-, Pers. تراشیدن ).

3.12.3. š < **šiy* < **ci̯*

āšām- ‘to sip, gulp; drink’ < *abi-ci̯ām-ai̯a- (Parth. abšām- ‘to swallow’, Sogd. āšām- ‘to drink’, Orm. šām- ‘to sip’, Yid. šam-: šamd- ‘to drink’, Pers. آشامیدن , چمیدن , cf. Vd 5.51 śāmąn: āšāmag [gumēz]), cf. āsam-.

Hōšang pr.n.m. from Av. haośyaŋha- lit. ‘good choice’, a vṛddhi derived from *hu-śyah- < *hu-ci̯ah- (Paz. J haosə̄ṇg, Arab. اوشهنج ).

šād ‘happy, joyful’ < *šiyāta- < *ci̯āta- < *kwi̯eh1to- (OPers. šiyāta- adj. ‘happy, felicitous’, šiyāti- f. ‘happiness, felicity’, Av. śāta- / G śyāta-, Bactr. þαδο, Tokh. A śāt/ B śāte, Niya Pkt. ṣada, Paz. šāt̰, cf. Sogd. šātox ‘happy’ < *šiyātahu̯ā- ≈ Pers. šādmān ‘glad of mind’ < *šiyātamāna-, cf. Lat. quiētus).

šav-: šud ‘to go’ < *ci̯au̯a-: *ci̯uta- (OPers. šiyava- pres., Av. śyao-, śyava- pres., °śuta- ppp., Skt. cyávate, cyutá-, Sogd. šǝv-, Khot. tsv-: tsuta-, Bactr. þαο-/ þαοι-: þοδο, Par. čh-: čhī-, Paz. šah-: šud),

šāv- ‘to move; send’ < *ci̯āu̯-ai̯a- (Av. śāvaya- caus. pres., Skt. cyāváyati, cyāvayitṛ- m. ‘a causer of motion’),

frāz šāv- ‘to shake’ (Parth. frašāv- ‘to send forth’),

šavān ‘path, way, course’ < *ci̯au̯āna-,

šōn ‘way of acting, manner’ < *ci̯au̯ana- (Paz. šuṇ).

š < OPers. šiy < **θi̯*

pēš ‘before’ < *pašii̯ā- < *paθi̯ā- (OPers. paišiyā).

vēš ‘more’ (comp. of vas) < *u̯ašii̯ah- < *u̯aθi̯ah- (Paz. və̄š, gə̄š, Pers. بیش ).

xvēbaš older form of xvēš ‘own, self’ < *huvaipašiya- < *hu̯ai̯-paθi̯a-, (OPers. huvaipašiya-, Av. xvaēpaiθya-, Parth. vxēβēh).

3.12.4. š < fš

šānag ‘shoulder’ < *fšāna- (Khot. kṣāna-, Yid. šfīna ‘instep’, Bal. šānaγ ‘backbone, nape of the neck’, Pers. شانه ).

šarm ‘shame; sex’ < *fšarma- (Av. fšārǝma- m., Osset. æfsarm, æfsærm).

šārs- (šrās- is a metathesis of šārs-) ‘to be put to shame, be confounded’ < *fšārsa- inch. pres. (Parth. šfars- ‘to be ashamed’ < *fšarsa-, Khot. kṣār- ‘id.’),

šrāsēn- caus. ‘to put to shame’ (cf. also srāxšēn-).

šubān ‘shepherd, herdsman’ < *fšu-pāna- (Paz. šaβą, cf. Armen. špet ‘shepherd, pastor, clergyman’ < *fšu-pati-).

šūy ‘husband’ < *fšui̯ad- (Av. fšuyaṇt- adj. ‘tending cattle’, vāstrya- fšuyaṇt- ‘husbandman’, fšu° ‘livestock’ < *pśu-, Khot. kṣundaa- ‘husband’, Yid. šifë, šfoi),

šūyvar ‘id.’ (Pers. شوهر ).

3.12.5. š < *xš

ašnav-: ašnūd ‘to hear, hearken, listen’ < *xšnau̯-(a-) or *ā-xšnau̯-: *xšnuta- (OPers. ā-xšnau, , Av. xšnu- pres. hu-xšnuta- Skt. kṣṇav ‘to whet, sharpen, kṣṇáuti, kṣṇutá-, Parth. ešnav-: ešnūd, Nāinī ašnov-: ašnuft, Paz. šnaβ-, xšnūt̰, Pers. شنیدن ، شنودن ).

āšt ‘peace; in peace’ < *āxšti- (Av. āxšti- f.).

rōšn ‘light, bright, luminous; clear, lucid’ < *rau̯xšna- (Av. raoxšna- adj., Sogd. ruxšǝn adj. ‘light’, ruxšna°, Yaγ. raxšin ‘dawn’, Paz. rōšan),

Rōšnag pr. n. f. (Gr. Ῥωξάνη).

šab ‘night’ < *xšap- (OPers. xšap- f., Av. xšap-, Skt. kṣáp- f., Av. xšapan-/ xšafn- f., Khot. ṣṣavā-, Sogd. ǝxšǝpa, Bactr. χαβ°, Khwar. xb, ʾxyb, Šuγ. x̌āb, Osset. I æxsæv, D æxsævæ, Bal. šaf, šap, Paz. šav),

šabīg ‘sacred shirt’ < *xšapi̯aka- (Armen. šapik ‘shirt, shift’),

šabestān ‘private apartment; bed-chamber’ < *xšapastāna-.

šām ‘evening; evening meal, supper’ < *xšāpni̯a- (Av. xšăfnya- nt. lit. ‘belonging to evening/ night’, ‘evening meal’, Sogd. xšām, ǝxšām > Turk. axšam, Pašt. šūma).

šāh ‘king’ < *xšāi̯aθi̯a- (OPers. xšāyaθiya-, Skt. sāha- m., pradīpa-sāha- m. ‘pradīpa-king’, name of a prince, Bactr. þαο-, þαυο- ‘king’ < *xšāu̯an-, Sogd. ǝxšēvanē),

sāhagān ‘royal’, name of the town of Marv (Bactr. þαογανο, Pers. ganz ī šāhagān ‘Royal Treasury/ library’, Marv šāhagān top. ≈ Arab. مرو شاهجان ),

also šāhīgān ‘palace’ < *xšāi̯aθi̯akāna- (Sogd. šāykǝn, Pers. شایگان ).

šahr/ šār ‘kingdom; country; principality; state; world’ < *xšaθra- (Av. xšaθra-, OPers. xšaça-, Skt. kṣatrá-, Parth. xšahr, Armen. ašxarh ‘world, land’, Bactr. þαρο/ þαυρο, Sogd. ǝxšaθr°, Paz. šahar),

šahrīg ‘of the city, civil ; citizen; (government) official’ < *xšaθrii̯aka- (Bactr. þαριγο, þαυριγο, Arab. شهريج tāzīg),

šahrgird top. < *xšaθrii̯a-kṛta- (Gr. Χατραχάρτα, Σαρακαρταν, Arab. شهرقرد , شهرجرد , cf. Av. xšaθrō.kǝrǝta- adj., nt., Sogd. ǝxšaθr-kǝtē ‘princely’).

šahrab (also šasab) ‘satrap, governor’ < *xšaθra-pā(u̯an)- (OPers. xšaçapāvan-, Skt. kṣatrapa- m., Gr. σατράπης, Bactr. þαραβο, þαυραβο, παρσαþαραβο ‘the Persian satrap’, Armen. šahap ‘mayor, provost, sheriff, viceroy’).

šahriyār ‘ruler, lord, king, commander’ < *xšaθra-dāra- (Parth. šahrδār, Bactr. þαροληρο, Paz. šaharyār).

šahrvēr/ šahrēvar name of an Amǝṣa Spǝṇta, 4th day of the month, name of a month from Av. xšaθra- vairya- (Sogd. ǝxšēvar, Bactr. þαορηορα, Pers. شهریر , شهریور ). šăy- ‘to be able; rule’ < *xšH-ái̯a- (OPers. xšā, xšaya- pres. ‘to rule, control’, Av. xšā, xšaya- pres., Skt. kṣā, kṣáya-ti, Parth. šah-, Sogd. ǝxšāy- ‘to rule’, Paz. šah-/ šāy-),

pādixšāy ‘sovereign; authoritative; authorized’ < *pāti-xšā-u̯an- (Parth. pādixšān, Paz. pādišāh, cf. OPers. pati-xšaya- ‘to rule over’, Parth. padixšāh-). šēd ‘brilliant, red; sorrel (horse)’ < *xšai̯ta- (Armen. ašxēt ‘alezan, sorrel, reddish.’, Pers. شید , شیذ ),

šēdvars adjective used to describe a horse < *xšai̯ta-u̯arsa-,

asp ī šēd/ šed asp ‘alezan horse’ (Kurd. hēsp i šī, Pers. شیداسپ ).

šīr ‘milk’ < *xšīra- (Skt. kṣīrá- nt.),

šīrēn ‘sweet’ (Paz. šīrīn),

axšīrag ‘not breastfeeding, weaned (child)’ < *a-xšīra-ka- (cf. Av. ašire).

šīvan/ šīn ‘lamentation, crying’ < *xši̯a-u̯ana- (Av. xšī- f., xšya- m., Sogd. ǝxšēvan < *xšai̯-u̯an-, Kurd. šīn).

šōy-: šust ‘to wash’ < *xšau̯d-a(i̯a)-: *xšusta- (Av. xšusta-, Skt. kṣod, ákṣodayat, Parth. šōδ-: šust, Pers. شوی- , شور- , شست ).

šuhr ‘semen’ < *xšudra- (Av. xšudra-, xšuδra- nt. ‘liquid, semen, fluid; alcoholic liquid’, Paz. šuθur).

šuy (also suy) ‘hunger’ < *xšud- (Av. šuδ- m. ‘hunger’, Skt. kṣúdh- f. ‘hunger’, Osset. I syd, D sudæ ‘id.’, Bal. šud, šuδ ‘hunger’, šudīg ‘hungry’).

3.12.6. š < **xšu̯*

šast ‘sixty’ < *xšu̯ašti- (Av. xšvašti-, Parth. šašt, Bactr. χοατο, Khot. kṣaṣṭä, Pašt. špeta, Orm. ṣūṣtu, Osset. æxsai)

šaš ‘six’ < *xš(u̯)aš < *š(u̯)aćš (Av. xšvaš, Parth. šoh, Sod. vǝxšu, ǝxvǝšu, Khot. kṣäta’, Osset. æxsæz, Pašt. شپږ /špaǵ/, Waxī šād).

šēb-: šift ‘to move quickly, move back and forth; be confused; be stirred up (water)’ < *xšu̯ai̯b-a-: *xšu̯ipta- (Av. xšvaēβaya- caus. pres. ‘to vibrate, sparkle’, xšvaēβayat̰.aštra- adj. ‘with a vibrating whip’, Sogd. xvǝšēp ‘whip’, Pers. شپ ‘jumping’, شیب ‘whip’),

hašēb-: hašift ‘to be confused’ < *ham-xšu̯ai̯ba- (Sogd. anxšēp- ‘to wriggle’),

šēbag ‘squinty’ < *xšu̯ai̯ba-ka- (Sogd. ǝxvǝšēp cašmāk ‘squint-eyed’),

šēbāg ‘vibrant, sparkling’ rendering Av. xšviβra- adj. ‘quick, fast’ < *xšu̯ib-rá-,

šēbāg-tigr renders Av. xšviβi.išuš adj. ‘with vibrant arrow’ (Pers. شیواتیر , Arab. شيباتير ).

šift ‘milk’ < *xšu̯ipta- (Av. xšvipta°, xšviptavaṇt- ‘containing milk’, Sogd. ǝxšiβd, Yaγn. xšift, Khot. ṣvīdä, Pašt. šaudǝ, Šuγ. x̌ūvd, Parth. šift-xvārag ‘milk-drinking, suckling, baby’ ≈ Pers. šīrxvārag),

šiftag ‘sweet’, šiftēn ‘id.’ ≈ šīrēn (Parth. šiftēn),

šiftēnag a kind of sweetmeat.

3.12.7. šk < sk

arešk ‘envy, jealousy’ < *araska- (Av. araska- m. ‘envy’, arǝšyaṇt- adj. ‘envious’, Sogd. arǝsk, Parth. rask, cf. Skt. īrṣyā́- f., Pers. رشک ).

eškăf-: t ‘to split, cleave’ < *skap-[ai̯]a-: skapta- (Pers. شکافتن ),

eškafs- inch. pres. < *skap-sa-,

škeft ‘stupefied, astonishing; terrible, fierce’ < *skapta- (Av. skapta- adj., Paz. škaft, cf. Khot. skoda-).

eškarv- ‘to stumble, totter, stagger’ < *skarf-a- (Parth. eskarf-, Pers. شکرفیدن , cf. Skt. skhal).

škenn-: škast ‘to break’ < *skand-ai̯a-: skasta- (Av. skaṇd, sciṇdaya- pres., Khot. hatcañ- ‘to break’),

škenn (Av. skǝṇda- m., cf. Skt. skandhá- m. ‘shoulder; stem or trunk of a tree’).

škōh (also škōy) ‘glory; awe’ < *skau̯aθa-, škōyīh- ‘to fear’ < *skau̯aθ-i̯a- (Pers. شکوهیدن ).

škōh (also eškōh) ‘poor, weak, miserable’ < *skau̯θi- (OPers. skauθi-, škauθi- adj., Parth. eskō, eskōh).

3.12.8. šn

jašn ‘festival’ < *i̯ašna- < *i̯asna- < *i̯aźna- (Av. yasna- m. ‘ritual’, Skt. yajñá- m., Khot. gyaysna-).

pašn (also pašt) ‘bond, agreement’ < *pašna- < *pasna-.

šnār ‘sinew’ < *snāu̯ar- (Av. snāvarǝ ‘sinew’, snāvarǝ.bāzura- adj. ‘whose arm is of sinew’ rendered by Pers. šnārbāzā, Skt. snā́van- nt., Sogd. snāv, Osset. I nwar, D nawær).

šnās- (also ešnās-): šnāxt ‘to know, recognize; distinguish’ < *xšnā-sa- inch. pres. < *źnā-sa-, *xšnāta- ppp. (OPers. xšnāsa-),

šnāsag ‘knowing one; sense organ’ < *xšnāsa-ka- (Paz. šnāsaa).

šnōhr (also ešnōhr) ‘grace, gratitude’ < *xšnau̯θra- (Av. xšnaoθra- nt., Armen. šnorh ‘grace, favour, auspices, gracefulness’, cf. Khwar. ʾxnwry ‘thank’),

burdešnōhr ‘bearing gratitude’.

šnōšag ‘sneeze’ < *xšnau̯ša-ka- (Pers. شنوشه , cf. Skt. kṣav ‘to sneeze’, kṣáuti, kṣáva- m. ‘sneezing’).

šnāz- ‘to bathe, swim’ < *snāǰ[h]a- (Parth. snāž-, Khot. ysänāj-),

šnāz ‘swimming’, cf. also āsnāy- ‘to wash, bathe, cleanse’ < *ā-snāi̯a-: *ā-snāta-

ărešn ‘cubit’ < *arašni < *araθni- (OPers. arašni- ‘cubit’, Av. arǝθnå < *arǝθn-, Skt. aratní- m., Pers. ارش ).

bāmbišn ‘queen’ < *māna-pašnī- < *dmāna-paθnī- (Av. nmānō.paθnī-/ G dǝmānō.paθnī- f. ‘mistress of the house’).

dāšn/ dāšin ‘gift, present’ < *dāšna- < *dāθna- (Bactr. λαþνο, Aram. dšn, Arab. داشن , دواشن pl., cf. Elam. daš-na: d.u-ra-maš-da-daš-na), Parth. dāšin ‘id.’ may come from < *dāšină- (cf. Skt. dakṣiṇā-).

dašnag ‘(short) dagger, poniard, cutlass’ < *dašnaka- < *daθna-ka- (Armen. danak ‘knife, dagger’, also dašnak, Pers. دشنه ).

hambišn ‘fellow-wife, co-wife, rival wife’ < *ham-pašnī- < *ham-paθnī- (Av. hapaθnī- f., Gīl. avistī, avisī, Pers. آموسنی ).

bašn ‘height; stature; top’ (Av. barǝšnu- m. ‘height, elevation’, Pers. بشن ),

bašnāy ‘id.’ (Parth. bašnān).

bašn ‘mane’, cf. buš.

For nominal forms in išn < *-šna- < *-θna- See “The Verb”, 4.1.4.

3.12.9. The word for ‘mane’

buš (also bašn) ‘mane’ (Av. barǝša- m., Armen. baš ‘mane (of a horse, etc.)’,

barš bot. ‘Horsehair lichen’, Sogd. βǝnš, Khot. brīra , Osset. I barc, D barcæ, Bal. bušk, Pers. بش 'horse's mane; lock, ringlet’, فش ‘mane or tail of a horse’).

The word pēšag

pēšag ‘class, profession, caste’ rendering Av. pištra- nt. lit. ‘colour’ used for ‘(social) estate, craft’ (Paz. pə̄šaa, pə̄šagą pl.).

The word vāš

vāš ‘grass, straw, pasture’ (also vāstar) < *u̯āstra- (Av. vāstra- nt., Yaγ. wεš, wayš, Paz. vāštr, Gīl. vāš).

3.12.10. ṛ/ r may fall before š:

Aštād name of a deity, ‘rectitude’ < *ṛštāt- (Av. arštāt- f., Bactr. ριϸτο).

hišt ‘left, dismissed’ < *hṛšta- ppp. of *harz (Pers. hil-).

išt/ xišt ‘spear’ < *ṛšti- (Av. aršti- f.).

kiš- (also karš-): kišt ‘to draw, drag; trace’ < *karš-a-: *kṛšta- (Av. karša- pres., karšaiti, karšta- ppp., Skt. karṣ, kárṣati, kṛṣáti, kṛṣṭá-, Sogd. xarš-, xǝš-, Paz. kaš-/ kiš-),

kiš ‘line’ < *karša- (Av. karša- m.),

kišt ‘cultivation (of the soil), tilling’ < *kṛšti- (Av. karšti- f.).

kišvar ‘continent, region of the world’ < kṛšiu̯ar/n- (Av. karšvan/r- nt., Parth. kišfar, Paz. kǝšβar).

kišv/ kišvān ‘cultivation’ (Parth. kišfān, cf. Av. karǝšuya- adj. ‘arable’, karǝšū- f. ‘furrow, trench’, Skt. karṣū́- f. ‘id.’).

mōš- ‘to forget, neglect’ < *mṛš-i̯a-: *mṛšta- (Skt. mŕ̥ṣyate, Tokh. märs-),

frāmōš-: frāmušt ‘to forget’ < *frā-mṛši̯a- (Skt. pra-mŕ̥ṣe, Khot. hāmura-, Bal. šamŭš-aγ: šamušt, Paz. farmōš-),

frāmušt ‘forgetfulness’ < *frā-mṛšti- (Paz. farmōšt, Pers. فرامشت , فرامش ).

mušt ‘rubbed, swept’ < *mṛšta- ppp. of Hmarz, Pers. māl- ‘to rub, sweep’ (Av. °maršta-, Skt. mṛṣtá).

pāšnag ‘heel’ < *pāšna-ka- < *pāršnă- (Av. pāšna- nt., pāšnā- f., kasu.pāšna- adj., Skt. pā́rṣṇi- f., Sogd. pǝšnā, Khot. pārrā-, Šuγ. pǟrnak, Pašt. pṣa ‘foot’, pūnda ‘heel’, Pers. پاشنه , cf. Gr. πτέρνη, Lat. perna).

pušt ‘back, loin; hill; backing, support’ < *pṛšta- (Av. paršti- f., paršta- m., cf. Skt. pṛṣṭí- f. ‘rib’, pṛṣṭhá- nt. ‘back [of body]’, Sogd. parc, Khot. palśti ‘back’),

puštebān ‘protector, supporter’ < *pṛšta-pāna- (Armen. paštpan ‘protector, patron, defender’).

3.12.11. š comes out of *h following a vowel:

nišĭy- (later nišīn-): nišast ‘to sit down; settle oneself’ < *ni-šid-a-: nišasta- (Av. ni-had, hiδa- pres., °šta- ppp., nišąsyā ‘I shall sit down’, Skt. sī́dati, sattá-, ni-ṣad, up-ni-ṣad- f., Pal. ni-sīdati, Khot. näta’stä, Parth. nišīδ-/ nišīl-: nišast, Sogd. nīθ-: nīst, Yaγ. nīd-ak ‘to sit down’),

nišāy- (also nišān-, nišāl-) ‘to set down, place; establish; found’ < *ni-šād-ai̯a- (OPers. niyašādaya-, Av. ni-šāδaya- caus. pres., Skt. sādáyati, Sogd. nǝšēδ),

nišālišn ‘footstool’,

nišēm ‘seat, perch’ < *ni-šad-man-.

viš-: višt ‘to open, release, unbind, untie, loose’ < *u̯iši̯a-: *u̯išta- (OPers. višta°, Av. hya- pres., hita- ppp., vīšta°, Skt. sā, syáti, sitá-, ví-ṣita-, Khot. hīyā ‘bound’, Waxī wüš- ‘to loose’, cf. Pašt. wĭt ‘open, wide’),

višāy- (also, višāh-): višād ‘id.’ < *u̯i-šāi̯a- (Skt. °sāyáyati, Parth. višāh-: višāδ, Waxī wušūy- ‘to untie’, Pers. گشودن , گشادن ).

3.12.12.

The word pedišxvarr/ pedišvarr ‘bowl, dish’ (tašt pedišxvarr ‘drinking vessel’):

It translates Av. åŋvharǝna- adj. < *ā-hu̯arana-. Cf. OPers. p-t-i-š-u-v-r-n-m nt. ‘cup’, Elam. bat-ti-iš-mar-na-bar-ra-is ‘cup-bearer’. Cf. also Av. paitiš.xvarǝna- nt. ‘upper part of the face’.

The word for “trousers”:

šalvār lit. ‘covering thighs’ < *šara-u̯āra- from šal ‘thigh, leg’ (cf. Gr. σκέλος nt. ‘leg’, Pers. شل ‘thigh’), cf. Pers. شروار , شلوال , Gr. σαράβαρα, Simn. šuvål, Waxī šavalak, Osset. salbar, Arab. سربال , سروال .

The word for “glass”:

šīš < *šīša- (Armen. šiš ‘bottle, decanter, phial; alabaster’),

šīšag ‘glass, pane’ < *šīša-ka- (Georg. šišag-i, Pers. شیشه ).

3.12.13. š in a few loan words:

šagāl z. ‘jackal’ (Skt. śṛgālá-/ sṛgālá m., Pālī sigāla- m., Sogd. škārāk, Pers. شغال , شکال, شگار ), cf. Pers. tōrag ‘jackal’ (Bal. tholaγ, Yazd. sva tōra/ sag tur ‘Canis aureus’).

šambalīdag bot. ‘fenugreek’ from Akkad. šambaliltu (Pers. شنبلیله , شملیت , شنبلیت , شنبلید ).

šambat ‘Saturday’ from Aram. שַּבְתָּא (Paz. šuṇbat̰).

šīr (also Pers. xar) ‘ruler’ < *xšaθrii̯a- (Av. xšaθrya- adj. ‘in command’, Bactr. χαρο, Pers. شیر ).

Šūs (also Šūš) top. (Elam. su-sim/sus-/, New Elam. šu-ša-an, Hebr. שוּשַּן , Gr. Σοῦσα), also hūz (OPers. hūža-).

3.12.14. Geminated šš:

peššinz-: peššixt ‘to sprinkle’ < *pati-šinca- < *pati-hinc-a- (Av. hic, paiti.hic, hiṇca- pres., paiti.hiṇcōit̰, °hixta- ppp., Skt. siñcáti, siktá-, Pers. پشنجیدن ),

peššinzag ‘drop’ < *pati-šinca-ka-,

peššing ‘id.’ (Pers. پشنگ ).

3.12.15. Vocalic epenthesis

šmār ‘number; numbering; arithmetic’ can be read /ušmār/ or /ešmār/ (Parth. ešmār, Paz. xvašmār) –Persian inserts the vowel [u] between two consonants: šumār.

3.12.16. ž: š

It may be simpler if we assign [ž] to the phoneme z. However, we find a few cases which seem to point to a merger of [ž] and [š]. Then the phoneme /ž/ remains in suspense –it may be considered as an allophone of /š/ before voiced consonants.

bažag ‘joint of a finger’ (written bčk) rendering Av. baši- m.

dwšbwrtꞋ /dušburd/ ‘badly-treated, distressed’ (Mf 11 xāmōš ī dušburd), also dwjbwrd /dužburd/ (TM 477 tū ēdōn dužburd būd hē) < duž-bṛta- (cf. Av. dužbǝrǝt- adj. ‘treating badly’, dušbǝrǝtə̄e Yt 1.24, dužbǝrǝṇtō Yt 10.48).

xružd (written ʾlwšd) ‘hardship’, cf. Av. xruždā- f. ‘id.’, xruždra- adj. ‘hard, firm’ (rendered by saxt), xruždisma- nt. ‘hard soil’.

yōždăhr ‘pure, holy’ written ywšdʾsr (Book script), ywjdhr (Estrangelo), cf. Av. yaoždāθra- nt. ‘state of purity, purification; purifying (agent)’.

We also find syzd/ syšd rendering Av. syazd, sīždya- pres., syazd- aor. ‘to remove, chase away’.

The word for ‘hell’ in Avesta is daožaŋvha- nt. It is found in Parthian in the form of dōžax and is borrowed into Armenian džoxk̕. It is possible that the Pārsīg continues the old pejorative prefix duš° (Skt. duṣ°) instead of voicing the intervocalic voiceless spirant:

dušox or dōšaxv < *dauš-ahu̯a-.

§ 3.13. m

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic m:

must ‘violence, force; tyranny’;

kumīg ‘stomach’;

dām ‘trap, net’.

3.13.1. As a general rule, the nasal *m is preserved:

dālman ‘lammergeyer, eagle’ < *darnu-mani- (Av. zarǝnu.maini- adj. ‘golden-necked’ an epithet of the kahrkāsa, Skt. minu- f. ‘neck-ornament’, maṇi-grīvá- adj. ‘wearing a necklace’, híraṇyena maṇínā, Pers. دالمن ‘black eagle’).

kamar ‘belt, girdle; sword-belt’ < *ka-marā- (Av. kamarā- f.).

māh ‘moon; month’ < *māh- < *maHas- (OPers. māh-, Av. māh- m., må, mås-ca nom. sg., måŋhō, Skt. mā́s-, Sogd. māx, Bactr. μαο, μαυο, Khot. mās-tä nom. sg., Šuγ. mǟst, Yaγ. mah°, mōh°, Kurd. مانگ ‘moon, month’, Gīl. mā, Tab. māng ‘moon’, māngdēm pr. n., lit. ‘with the face of Moon’, cf. Osset. I mæj, D mæjæ),

māhīgān ‘month, (days) of a month’ < *māhi̯a-kāna- lit. ‘[the period] belonging to Moon’ (Pers. ماهیان , ماهیانه ‘monthly wages’).

mān-: mānd ‘to remain, stay; inhabit, dwell, live’ < *mān-ai̯a-: *mān-ta- (OPers. mānaya-, Av. mānaya-/ mąnaya- pres., Khot. māñ-, Sogd. mēn-, Ard. mon-: mand, Aby. mūn-, cf. Arab. موانيد ‘tax debts’),

mānd ‘house; sanctuary’ < *mānta-.

? mān- ‘to make one think; resemble’ caus. pres. of men- ‘to think’ < *mān-ai̯a- (Av. manya- pres. ‘to think’, mata- ppp., mānaya- caus. pres. ‘to resemble’, mąnayǝn ahe yaθa ‘just like’, Sogd. mēn-),

mānāg ‘resembling’ (Parth. mānhāg, Sogd. mānūk ‘similar’, Tokh. menāk ‘like, example’, Paz. mānā).

mān ‘mind, heart; opinion’ < *māna- (Skt. mā́na- m. ‘opinion, idea, respect’, Sogd. mān, Bactr. μανο),

mānag ‘id.’ < *māna-ka-.

mar ‘felon, villain’ from Av. mairya- m. ‘bad man, knave’, also mērag ‘young man; bridegroom; master’ < *mari̯a-ka- (OPers. marīka- m. ‘young man; subject’ < *marii̯aka-, Skt. márya- m. ‘young man; lover; stallion’, maryaká- m. ‘little man; a bull among cows’, Kati mǝrǝ ‘young man’, Bactr. μαρηγο ‘servant’, Paz. mə̄raa, Pers. میره ).

mār ‘snake, serpent’ < *māra- lit. ‘killing’, or, less likely *marθra- ‘killer’.

mēhan ‘home, homestead’ < *mai̯θana- (Av. maēθana- nt. ‘dwelling, home’, maēθanyā- f. ‘id.’).

men- (also man-) ‘to think, reflect, consider, meditate; care for’ < *mán-i̯a- (OPers. maniya-, maniyaiy, Av. manya- pres., mainyete, mata- ppp., Skt. mányate, matá-, Khot. mañ-, Sogd. mǝn-, Paz. min-).

nam ‘homage’ (Av. nǝmah- nt., Skt. námas-),

namāz ‘bow, reverence, prayer’ < *namācī- (Sogd. nǝmāc, nǝmācyu < *namācii̯a-m, Yaγ. E numāc-a, W nimāc-a, Kati nǝmoč, Khowar nimēž, Parth. namāž, Bal. namāš, Bactr. ναμασο, ναμωσο, Paz. namāž).

nām ‘name; noun; renown, fame’ < *nāman- (Av. nāman-, nąman- nt. Skt. nā́man- nt. ‘name, appellation, sign’, Khot. nāma, Bactr. ναμο, Pašt. nūm, Osset. I nom, D non, Kurd. nāw, Paz. nąm),

nāmag ‘letter, epistle, book’ < *nāma-ka- (Sogd. nāmăk, Bactr. ναμαγο, Arab. نامج , نامق , Pers. نامه ).

namad ‘felt (carpet)’ < *namata- (Skt. namata- nt. ‘felt’, Khot. namata- ‘felt cloth’, Osset. I nymæt, D nimæt ‘felt; burka’, Bal. navad ‘felt’, Arab. نمط ).

3.13.2. Contraction of dm, hm, nm, xm, mn, mb, pn > m:

amāh/ amā/ amāg ‘we; us’ < *ahmākam (OPers. amāxam, Av. ahmākǝm, Parth. amāh, WBal. ammā, Paz. ə̄mā, Pers. ما ).

āmār (also ušmār < *hišmāra-) ‘account, reckoning; arithmetic; consideration’ < *ā-hmāra- (Bactr. αυμαρο, also υαμαρο, Armen. hamar ‘account, calculation, count’, Pers. همار , شمار , آمار , Arab. همار ),

āmārgar ‘account-maker, bookkeeper’ < *°kara- (Bactr. υαμαρογαρο, Armen. hamarakar ‘manager, steward, bailiff; censor’, hamarakal ‘accountant, bookkeeper’, Parth. āhmārgar, Akkad. LÚ ḫa-am-ma-ra-a-ka-ra /ḫamarakara/),

mar ‘number; account’ < *hmara- (Paz. mara),

amar ‘countless, innumerable’ < *a-hmara-.

jum- < jumb- ‘to move’ < *i̯amb-a- (Sogd. yāβ- ‘to rove’, Paz. juṇb-).

juvāmard ‘young man; brave’ < juvān-mard < *i̯uu̯an- + *martii̯a-.

kam ‘few, little, slight’ < *kabna- < *kṃb-na-, also kamb < *kambna- (OPers. kamna-, Av. kamna- adj. ‘few’, Bal. xam, Kurd. kem, Paz. kam, cf. Hittite kappi- ‘small’),

kem comp. ‘less; lesser, inferior’ < *kambi̯ah- (Sogd. kambī, kǝβn, Parth. kamb, Bactr. καμβο-δαρο, Paz. kim, kǝm),

kamist ‘least’ < kambišta- (Av. kambištǝm adv., Bactr. καμβατο).

aškam/ aškum (also aškamb) ‘belly, stomach, womb’ < *škámba- (Parth. eškamb, Paz. iškam, aškum, aškaṇb, Pers. شکنب , اشکم , شکم ), aškambag < *škámba-ka- (Yaγn. šikámpa ‘belly, abdomen’, Paz. iškaṇba, Pers. شکنبه ).

mān ‘house, abode, lodging’ < dmāna- (OPers. māna- ‘house’, māniya- nt. ‘household’, Av. nmāna-/ G dǝmāna- nt., Skt. mā́na- m. ‘building, house; altar’, Sogd. δmān, Pašt. mēna, Paz. mąn, cf. Tokh. A māññe, B mañiye),

mānestān ‘dwelling-place; monastery, friary’ < *dmānastāna-,

mānbed ‘master of the house; husband’ (Av. nmānō.paiti- m., Paz. mąnavat̰).

nam (also namb) ‘moisture, wet’ < *namba- (Sogd. namb, Pašt. nūnd/ nūmd < *nambda- < *nambh-ta-, cf. Av. nabah- nt. ‘heaven’, Skt. nábhas- nt. ‘vapour, cloud, mist’).

nihum- (also nihumb-): nihuft ‘to hide, conceal; clothe; go into eclipse’ < *ni-θunba- (Paz. nahum-: nahuft),

āhum- (also āhumb-) ‘to disclose, reveal’ < *abi-θunba- (Parth. abhumb-).

šām ‘evening; evening meal’ < *xšāpni̯a- (Av. xšăfnya- nt. lit. ‘belonging to evening/ night’, Sogd. xšām ‘evening’, Tatar. axșam ‘evening prayer’).

tōm (also tōhm) ‘seed; semen; family; race’ < *tau̯xman- < *tau̯kman- (OPers. taumā- f., Av. taoxman-, Khot. ttīman- ‘seed’, Parth. tōxm, Armen. tohm ‘family, extraction, race, lineage’, Pašt. tōma, Paz. θūm, tuxm, cf. Skt. toká- nt. ‘offspring’, tókman- nt. ‘young stalk, sapling’).

3.13.3. Clusters

damb/ zamb ‘shore; beach; edge’ < *damba-.

myazd (also mīzd) ‘sacrificial repast, offering’ < *mii̯azda-.

namr/ narm ‘soft, humble, meek, pliant, tender, mild’ < *namra-.

pambag ‘cotton’ < *bamba-ka- (Armen. bambak, Osset. bæmbæg, Pers. پنبه ).

stambag ‘oppressive, tyrannous’ < *stamba-ka- (Armen. stambak ‘stubborn, rude, undocile, scoundrel, severe’, Pers. ستنبه , cf. OPers. stambava- ‘to rebel’, mā stabava, Av. aṣa.stǝmbana- ‘pillar of truth’, name of a mountain).

šamšēr ‘sword, scimitar’ < *šanma-xšuri̯a-.

xumb ‘jug, pitcher, kiln, large round pot’ < *xumba-.

xvamn (also xvamr/ xvarm) ‘sleep, dream’ < *hu̯apna- (Av. xvafna- m., Skt. svápna- m., Khot. hūna-, hvana-, Sogd. xuβn-, Yaγ. xŭmn/ xuvn, Parth. xvamr).

3.13.4. Sporadic interchange of b and m:

mang/ ¹bang ‘magic potion’ < *mangă-.

We find m alternating with f in a few words. See 3.9.2.

3.13.5. Geminated mm:

carmmōg (also carmōg) ‘leather foot wear; clog’ from carm ‘hide, skin, leather, parchment’ < *carman- (OPers. carman- nt., Av. carǝman-, Skt. cárman-, Khot. tcārman-, Sogd. carm, Pašt. carman, Arab. صرم ) and mōg ‘shoe, boot’ < mau̯k-a- (Arab. جرموق , سرمو ج ),

carmmōzag ‘boot’ from mōzag ‘shoe’ < *mau̯ca-ka- (Arab.-Pers. سرموزه , سرموجه ).

hammardcābuk a dvandva: hammard < *ham-u̯arta- ‘having physical exploit’ (cf. Yt 11.2 naire hąm.varǝitiš ‘the manly prowess’: hān ī mardān hammardcābukīh), and cābuk ‘agile, active’ < *cāpúka-ka-.

§ 3.14. n

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic n:

nang ‘disdain; shame’;

kanab ‘flax, hemp’;

kamān ‘bow; arc’,

kamann ‘halter, lasso’.

3.14.1. The nasal n may represent the old phoneme /n/:

nar ‘man’ < *nár-, ‘male, masculine; manly’ (also nēr) < *nár(i)i̯a- (Av. nar- m., nairya- adj., Skt. nár- m., náriya- adj., Bal. nar ‘male’, naryān ‘stallion’, Osset. næl ‘male’),

narvīr ‘man, male’, nārīg ‘wife; female’ < *nāri-kā- (Av. nāirikā- f., Paz. nārī).

nay-: nīd ‘to lead’ < *nái̯H-a-: nīta- (OPers. °naya-, Av. naya- pres., nayeiti, Skt. náyati, nītá-, Paz. nī-),

ānay-: ānīd ‘to bring (out), lead’ (Sogd. ānay-: ānīt).

nēm ‘half’ < *nai̯ma- (Av. naēma-, Skt. néma- ‘one, several, half’, Paz. nīm),

nēmag ‘half; quarter, direction, side; sacred shirt’ < *nai̯ma-ka-.

nimāy- : nimūd ‘to show, indicate, denote, signify, guide, exhibit, make known, teach’ < *nimāi̯a- : *nimāta- < *ni-máH-i̯a- (Av. mā ‘to measure’, maya- caus. pres., °māta- ppp., Skt. mā, mita-, Parth. nimāy-: nimād, Sogd. nǝmāy-: nǝmāt ‘to judge’, Osset. I nymajyn : nymad, D nimajun : nimad ‘to calculate, count; read’, Paz. namā- : namūt̰),

nimād ‘indication, symbol’, nimōnag ‘indication, symbol; example’,

nimūdag ‘model, pattern’ (Arab. انموذج ).

niš- ‘to see, observe; look (into), gaze, stare at; watch’ < *ni-šā, *niš-,

murv-niš lit. ‘bird-observer/ watcher’, ‘diviner’,

niš ‘notch, mark’ < *nišā- (Armen. niš ‘notch, mark, sign, point, brand, spot’),

nišān ‘sign, mark, standard, banner, portent; target; indication; signification’ < *nišāna- (Osset. I nysan, D nisan ‘sign, mark; target; bridal pledge’, Armen. nšan ‘sign, signal, track, aim, omen; ensign, indication; miracle’, Paz. nišą).

niyābag ‘becoming, fitting’ < *nii̯āpa-ka- (Bactr. νιιαβογο/ νιιαβγο, cf. nyāpǝm).

hunar ‘talent, skill; virtue; learning’ < *hunara- < *(H)su-Hnar-a- (OPers. huvnara- nt. ‘ability, talent, skill’, Av. hunara- m. ‘vital strength, capacity, talent, skill, artistry; beauty’, Skt. sūnára- adj. ‘possessing vital strength, beautiful’).

rān ‘thigh’ < *rāna- (Av. rāna- m., Bal. rān, Sangl. rōn, Pašt. rūn, wrūn, cf. Osset. I ron, D ronæ ‘belt’).

3.14.2. Clusters

durvand (also druvend) ‘wicked; deceitful; infidel’ < *druu̯ant-.

ēranz-: ēraxt ‘to condemn’ < *adi-Hranj-ai̯a-.

ganz ‘treasure, treasury; store-house; chest’ < *ganza-.

handarz ‘instruction, precept, order; law; testament’ < *handarza- < *ham-darza- (Av. haṇdarǝzaya- pres. < *°dharj́h-ái̯a-, Aram. hndrz, Parth. andarz, Bactr. ανδαρζο, Paz. aṇdarž),

handarzbed ‘chancellor, counsellor; steward’ (cf. ŠKZ 33 handarzbed: handarzbaδ: άνδαρζαβιδ, cf. also Armen. anderjapet).

Hind top. ‘India’ < *hindu- (OPers. hindu- ‘India’, hinduya- ‘Indian’, cf. Av. hapta hǝṇdu ‘seven streams’, Skt. saptá síndhavaḥ, síndhu- m. f. ‘big river, sea, ocean; Indus river’, Armen. snd), hindūg ‘Indian (people, language)’ < *hindu-ka-.

pand ‘path, way; counsel, advice’ < *pantā-.

panz ‘five’ < *panca (Av. paṇca, Khot. paṃjsa, Parth. panj, Zaz. pānǰ, Osset. fondz, Bal. panč, Paz. paṇja).

perind/ pering ‘monochrome damask, damask cloth’ < *pati-ranga-. rang ‘colour, dye; sound; stratagem, trick’ < *ranga- (Skt. raṅga- m. ‘colour, dye; theatre’, Armen. erang ‘colour, tint, hue’).

ng < *mg

hangad/ angad ‘complete, full, perfect, entire; rich’ < *ham-gata- (Av. hǝṇgata- adj., Parth. angad, hu-angad, Sogd. anγǝtē, anγǝtc f., Osset. ænγæd ‘enough’, Paz. aṇgid). OPers. hangmata- past ptc. ‘having come together’

hangaft ‘having come together, united’ from ham-gam ‘to come together, convene’ + -ta- (OPers. hangmata- ppp., Av. gata-, Skt. gatá-).

hangār- ‘to consider, reckon, compute; imagine; opine; think of’ < *ham-kār-ai̯a- (Av. haṇkāraya-, Paz. aṇgār-).

hangirb (also ham-kirb) ‘double (person), homo-morph’ < *hám-kṛp-.

hangōn ‘also, equally, likewise’ < *hám-gau̯na- (Av. hamagaona-, hamō.gaona- adj. ‘of the same colour’, Sogd. ǝnγōn ‘like, likewise’, mǝγōn ‘all’, Armen. hangoyn ‘equal, similar, ἴσος’), cf. hamgōnag.

nz < *mj

hanzām- (later hanzāb-): hanzāft ‘to finish’ < *ham-jām-ai̯a-: *ham-jāmta- (Parth. hanjām-, Pers. انجامیدن).

hanzaman (also hanzuman) ‘assembly, gathering, congregation, company, community, council’ < *hanjamana- (Av. haṇjamana- nt., Parth. anjaman, Sogd. anjaman, angmānē, Tokh. B ankānmi ‘communality’, Pers. انجمن ).

3.14.3. A geminate n is the result of the sequence *nd.

Primary nn < *nd:

bann or benn ‘bond, link; prison; tendon; bundle’ < *banda- (OPers. banda°, Av. baṇda- m., Skt. bandhá- m., Khot. bana, Parth. band, Bactr. βανδο, Paz. baṇd),

bannag ‘bondsman,subject; servant (boy); relative’ (OPers. bandaka-, Bactr. βανδαγο ‘servant boy’, βανζο/ βινζο ‘servant girl’ < *bandacī-, Osset. I bændæg, Paz. baṇdaa).

hannām ‘limb, member’ < *handāma(n)- (Av. haṇdāman- nt., Parth. handām, Armen. andam, Paz. aṇdąm, Pers. اندام ‘limb, member; a part of discourse’, Mand. handāmā).

hannāy- (also annāy-): hannūd ‘to incrustate, smear, anoint; plaster’ < *han-dāy- < *ham-dāu̯-ai̯a- (Av. °dava- pres. ‘to dilute’, Sogd. andāv-: andūt, Pers. اندودن ),

rōvnannūdag ‘anointed with oil’.

nivann-: nivast ‘to bind; begin’ < *ni-band-a-: *nibasta- (Av. ni-vaṇda- m., nivaṇdāt̰ ‘from the fetters’, Skt. ni-bandh ‘to enchain; join; undertake, begin’, nibandha- m. ‘tying; fetter, bondage; basis, root, origin’).

rann- ‘to scratch, grate, plane’ < rand-a- (Skt. rádati, Khot. ran- ‘to scrape’ Osset. D rændun ‘to smooth, iron’, Bal. rand-aγ ‘to comb, part the hair’, Pers. رندیدن ), rannag ‘plane, grater’ (Pers. رنده ).

škenn- ‘to break’ < *skand-ai̯a-.

xann- ‘to laugh’ < *xánd-a- (Parth. xand-, Khot. khan-, Sogd. γnt- /xand-/, Yaγ. xant-ak, Osset. I xūdyn, D xodun, Šuγ. šānd-, Orm. xan-, Par. khan-, Bal. kandag, xandaγ),

nišxann- ‘to sneer, scoff’ < *nišxanda- (Khot. naṣkhaṃ, Pers. نیشخند ),

usxann- ‘to mock’ < *usxanda- (Parth.-Sogd. esxand-).

Secondary nn < nd < *nt:

gannum ‘wheat’ < gandum < *gantuma- (Av. gaṇtuma- m., Khot. ganama-, Sogd. γntm /γandǝm/, Yaγ. γamtun, Šuγ. žindam, Pašt. γanǝm, Pers. گندم , cf. Skt. godhū́ma- m.),

gannum-afšarag ‘beer’ (Pers. گندم افشره ).

genn ‘stinking, foul’ < *gandV- < *gantV- (Av. gaiṇti- f., Parth. gand, Sogd. γǝnt, Paz. gaṇd, cf. Skt. gandhá- m.).

3.14.4. n alternating with r:

xvamn/ xvamr/ xvarm ‘sleep, dream’ < *hu̯apna- (Parth. xvamr, Lat. somnus).

Exchange of r and n:

kanār (also karān) ‘side, direction; edge, limit, margin; aside’ < *karana- (Av. karana- m., Parth. karān, Sogd. kirān, Bactr. καρανο, Pers. کران , کنار ),

kanārag ‘edge, boundary, limit; shore; border, landmark’ (Paz. kanāraa, cf. Khot. karāna- ‘ward’).

Epenthesis of n/r :

hunsand/ xursand ‘content, contented, satisfied, well-pleased’ < *hunsandu- (OPers. hu-θandu-, Parth. hunsand, Sogd. xusand, Bactr. υοσινδο < *hu-sandu-, χοασινδο < *hu̯a-sandu-, Paz. xvarsaṇd, Pers. خنسند , خرسند ).

3.14.5. Implosive n falls after a long vowel and before a consonant:

nigūsār ‘head downward, inverted’ from nigūn ‘inverted’ < *ni-kūnā- and sār ‘head’ < *sāra-.

šabāgāh ‘nightfall’ from šabān obl. pl. and gāh ‘time’ (Paz. šavągāh).

šabārōz ‘(by) day and (by) night’ (Bactr. χαβρωσο) = rōzšabān.

sēmurv (also sēn murv) a fabulous bird < *ś(i̯)aina-mṛga- (Yt 14.41 hāu maza mǝrǝγō saēnō. Kurd. sīmir, Pers. سیمرغ . Cf. Skt. śyená- m. ‘bird of prey, falcon’).

3.14.6. Sporadic change of d/ y < d/ δ to n in the vicinity of a nasal:

an < *anam < *adam < *aźam (OPers. adam nom. sg., Av. azǝm/ G azə̄m, Skt. ahám, Parth. az, Khot. aysu, Sogd. zu, Bactr. αζο, Sangl. azǝ/ azi, Šuγ. wuz, Zaz. az).

nišīy- (Paz. nišīn-): nišast ‘to sit down’ < OPers. ni-had/ šad (cf. Av. ni-had, Parth. nišīd-),

nišāy- (Ps. nišāl-, Paz. nišān-) ‘to set down’ < OPers. ni-šādaya-.

pedām (later panām) ‘sacred face-mask, mouth-veil’, pedān ‘that which is worn under the coat of mail’ < *pati-dāna- (Av. paiti.dāna- m. ‘protective garment; protective garment, plastron’, Armen. p‘andam, Mandaic pandama, Arab. فدام ‘muzzle’, Pers. پنام . Cf. Skt. prati-dhā́- f. ‘putting to the lips’, prati-dhāna- nt. ‘putting to or on’).

visin- (older visiy-): visast ‘to tear, split, shatter’ < *ṷi-sid-a- (Av. sid, °hisid- perf., °sista- ppp., Skt. chinátti, chinná-, vi-chid ‘to cut, tear, separate, break assunder’, Sogd. siδ-, Bactr. αβ-σιστο, Gīl. fusan-: fusas < *apa-sid, Bal. sind-ag, Pers. گسل , گسستن ),

visān- (older visāy-) ‘to decompose, tear off, separate’ < *u̯i-sād-ai̯a- (Av. sinā- f. is rendered by visānišn).

n alternating with y could be ancient:

rīy-/ rin-: rīd ‘to void, defecate’ < *rii̯a-/ rina-: rīta- (Av. irita- ppp., Skt. rī́yate, riṇā́ti, Paz. riy-, rə̄y-, Gīl. rin-: rēn),

xāyag rīy- ‘to lay eggs; spawn’,

rīyišn ‘defecating’ (Paz. riyšn) rendering Av. šāman- nt. ‘shit, feces, dung’.

3.14.7. The word bun

bun ‘base, bottom, fundament, origin; ground; principle; stock, capital; landed property; original; beginning’ < *buna- m. < *budna-, *buni̯a- adj. (Av. buna-/ G būna- m., Skt. budhná- m., budhnyà- adj., Prkt. bundha- nt. ‘root’, Khot. buna-, Osset. I byn, D bun ‘bottom; under’, Bal. bunā ‘below’, Armen. bun ‘original, real, formal’, bnik ‘native, natural, innate, indigenous’ < *buni̯aka-, Lat. fundus),

bunag ‘luggage, baggage; camp; domicile, abode; landed property’ < *buna-ka- (Bactr. βονο, βοναγο, Armen. bnak ‘domicile’, adj. ‘inhabitant’, Pers. بنه ).

§ 3.15. r

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic r:

rabih ‘noon; noon meal’; karafs ‘celery’; kōr ‘blind’, dard ‘pain’.

3.15.1. The phoneme r comes out as an r, and the syllabic ṛ becomes Vr.

dār-: dāšt ‘to hold, keep; have; maintain, look after’ < *dār-ai̯a- (OPers. dāraya- caus. pres., dāriya- pass. pres., Av. dāraya- caus. pres., °dǝrǝta- ppp., Skt. dhāráyati, dhṛtá-, Parth. dār-: dird, Khot. dār-: dṛta- Sogd. δār-: žǝγd, δrǝxt, Bactr. ληρ-: λριγδο, δδριγδο, Osset. I daryn, D darun, Bal. dārag).

Dārāy pr. n. < *dārai̯āu̯ahu- (OPers. dārayavahu- m., Parth. Dārāv, Dāryāv, Pers. دارا, داراب).

kār ‘work, affair; task; operation; issue; job; role’ < *kāra- (Av. kairya- nt. ‘work’, Sogd. kār, Skt. kāri- f. ‘action, work’, Pašt. čār, Par. kĕr, kīr).

kār ‘people’ < *kāra-, kārān pl. ‘others, other people’, opp. xvēš (OPers. kāra- m. ‘people; army’, Bactr. καρο, cf. Lith. kãra-s ‘war’, kãria-s ‘host’),

kārezār ‘battle-field; battle’ < *kāra-carana- (Pers. کالیجار, cf. Aog. 84 cairya: kārezārīg ‘warrior’),

kārbed ‘leader of caravan’ < *kāra-pati- (Armen. karapet ‘fore-runner, precursor; outrider’),

kārvān ‘army on the march, convoy; caravan’ < *kārau̯ān-am (Armen. karawan, Arab. قيروان , Paz. kāravąn),

kārdāg ‘traveller; wanderer’ < *kāra-(paθi-)tāka- (Paz. kārdahagą, cf. Gr. καρδάκες στρατευσάμενοι, Lat. cardacas).

kār ‘fresh butter’ < *kāra- (cf. Av. kāravaṇt- adj. rendered by kārumand, Vd 21.7 kāravaiti paēmavaiti, cf. also Pers. کره).

kēr ‘membrum virile’ < *kuiri̯a- (Khot. kūra-, Gil. ker).

nīrmed ‘benefit; fee’ < *ni-ṛ-mati- (Paz. nīrmad).

rad ‘model, rule, norm; moment; judge’ < *ratu- < *h2rét-u- (Av. ratu- m., Skt. ṛtú- m. ‘right time; period; fixed order’, Armen. ard ‘shape, order, structure’, Sogd. rǝtu a unit of time, Paz. rat̰).

rād ‘generous, liberal’ < *rāti- (Av. 1rāiti- f. action noun ‘gift, bestowal’, 2rāiti- agent noun ‘generous’, Skt. 1rātí- f. ‘gift, favour’, 2rātí- f. ‘willing to give, generous’, Paz. rāt̰).

radag ‘line, row, range’ < *rata-ka- (Tokh. A ratäk, B retke, Osset. rad, Pers. رده).

ram ‘herd, flock, crowd, multitude, people; the mass of commoners, populace’ < *rama- (Sogd. rǝm, Armen. eram ‘troop, flock, company’, ṙam ‘common folk’, cf. Lat. armentum ‘herd’),

ramag ‘id.’ (Sogd. rǝmē, Armen. eramak ‘herd, flock of animals’, ṙamkapet ‘official in charge of folk, democratic leader’),

pādram/ pāyram ‘common people, public’,

pādram ēvāz ‘the vernacular’.

rām- ‘to rest, enjoy’ < *rām-a-/ rām-ai̯a- (Av. rāma-, rāmaya- pres., Skt. rámate, rāmayáti, ratá-, Khot. ram-, Parth. ram-, Bactr. ριμ-, ρημ-),

rām ‘peace’ < *rāman- (Av. rāman- nt.).

rān-: rānd ‘to fight’ < *rān-ai̯a- (Av. rə̄na- adj. ‘fighting’, nt. ‘fight’, Skt. raṇ ‘to rejoice, delight (to fight)’, ráṇati, ráṇa- m. ‘delight’, nt. ‘battle, fight’, cf. Av. rānyō.skǝrǝiti- adj. ‘joy-bringing’, Armen. erani ‘happy, blessed’),

ran ‘delight’ < *rana- (Skt. ráṇa-),

hamrānīh ‘race, encounter’ < *hama-rān-ii̯aθu̯a- (OPers. hamarana- nt. ‘fight, combat’, hamaranakara- ‘fighter’).

rēdak ‘young man, lad, page; young of fish’ < rai̯tá-ka-ka- (Skt. rétas-, Armen. erita-sard ‘young man’ ≈ rēdak-sāl, Paz. rə̄dak, rə̄δagąn, cf. Gīl. rey, rikē, rikāy ‘boy’).

rīm ‘dirt, filth; bile’ < *rīma- (Av. irimaṇt- adj. ‘full of dirt’, Khot. rrīma- ‘dirt, faeces’, Sogd. rēm ‘dirt’, Yaγ. rēm ‘excrement’, Tokh. B rem ‘dust’, Pašt. rǝma/ rima ‘mucus’).

3.15.2. Clusters

arz- ‘to be worth’ < *arj-a- (Av. arǝja- pres., Skt. árhati, Paz. arž-),

arz ‘value, worth’ < *arjah- (Av. arǝjah- nt. ‘value’, arǝja- adj. ‘valuable’, Skt. árha- adj. ‘deserving, worthy of’, Paz. arža),

arzān ‘worthy, valuable’ < *arjāna- (Parth. aržān, Bactr. αζανο, Armen. aržan ‘deserving, worthy; cheap; worthy, fit’, Paz. aržąn, cf. Khot. āṣāṇa ‘worthy’),

arzānīg ‘worthy, deserving, meritorious’ (Armen. aržani, Paz. arząnī, aržąnī, cf. Tokh. A āṣānik, B aṣanīke).

pardag ‘curtain’ < *párata-ka- (Armen. partak ‘mask, veil, cover’, ‘a hunter’s tent’, Pers. پرده, cf. Aram. prdkšʾ/ prdšk title of some court official).

carm ‘hide, skin, leather, parchment’ < *carman-.

darmān ‘remedy, medicine, treatment’ < *darman-, *dramānam (Paz. darmą, Armen. darman ‘remedy, care, reparation’, darmanoc̕ ‘hospital, asylum’, cf. Skt. dhárman- ‘support, prop’, m. ‘order, conservation’).

Gurgān top. (Av. vǝhrkānō, OPers. vṛkāna- name of a province, Gr. Ὑρκανία, Armen. vrkan, Arab. جرجان ).

karš- (also kiš-) ‘to draw (furrows); trace ; pull’ < *kar-š-a-.

murvāg (also murvā, murvāh) ‘omen’ < *murv-vāg ‘bird’s cry’ from *mṛga- and *u̯āka- (Parth. murγvāg ‘daybreak; omen’, Pers. مروا، مرغوا).

nirfs- ‘to wane’ < nṛfsa- (Av. narp, nǝrǝfsa- inch.).

rarz-/ larz- ‘to tremble, shiver’ < *rarz-a-.

sard ‘ladder’ < *sarta- (cf. Gīl. sardī).

šarm ‘shame; sex’ < *fšarma-.

tars ‘fear, dread, fright’ < *tarsa- < *trasa- (Parth. ahrās, cf. sahm).

varg ‘leaf’ < *u̯arka-.

xirs ‘bear’ < *ṛša-.

zard (also zerd) ‘yellow, tawny’ < *zárita-.

zeryōn (also zergōn) ‘green, verdant’ < *zari-gau̯na-.

Cluster ršt:

aršt (also xišt) ‘spear’ < *ṛšti-.

rm / mr

narm (also namr) ‘soft, humble, meek, pliant, tender, mild’ < *namra- (Av. namra- adj. ‘flexible, sinuous’, nąmišta- superl. adj., Skt. namrá- adj. ‘bowing, bent, submissive’, Sogd. nǝmr, Parth. namr), narmag (also namrag) opp. dabr (Bab. JAram. nmrqʾ ‘cushion, pillow’, Arab. نمرق ‘id.’, نرمق ‘white fine cloth’, Pers. نرمه).

xvarm (also xvamr) ‘sleep, dream’ (Parth. xvamr).

3.15.3. The verb xrīn-/ xir-:

The stem xir- ‘to buy, purchase’ is secondary, the original stem is xrīn- < *xrīna-, and the preterit stem is xrīd < *xrīta- (Skt. krīṇā́ti, krītá-, Bactr. χιρ-: χιρδο, Sogd. xrīn-: xrīt-, xrīc ‘purchase’, also Bactr. χρισο < *xrīti-cī-, Yaγ. xirīn-ak, Khot. ggän, Paz. xar-, Pers. خریدن).

3.15.4. Gemination

parrēz- (also perrēz-): parrixt ‘to leave behind, remain over’ < *pati-rai̯c-ai̯a-/ *pari-rai̯c-ai̯a-: *°rixta- (Av. paiti-ric ‘to leave behind, abandon’, paiti.raēcaya- pres., irixta- ppp., Khot. parrīj-: parräta- ‘to deliver, rescue’ < *pari-rai̯cai̯a-, Sogd. pǝrēc-: pǝrǝγd),

perrixs- inch. ‘to be left (over), remain’ (Sogd. pǝrǝxs-, pārǝxs-: pǝrǝγd).

Assimilation of ṛn/ rn > rr:

āxvarr ‘manger, stable; (cavalry) supplies’ < *ā-hu̯arna- (Armen. axoṙ ‘stall, stable’).

darr- ‘to tear, rip’ < *dṛn-a- (Av. dar, dǝrǝn- pres., dǝrǝta- ppp., Skt. dṛṇāti, Osset. dæræn ‘scattered hay’, Bal. din-aγ ‘to tear’).

karr ‘deaf’ < *karná- (Av. karǝna- m. daēvic ‘ear’, karǝna- ‘deaf’, Skt. kárna- ‘ear’, Khot. kārra- ‘deaf’, Sogd. karn, Yaγ. kan, Šuγ. čun).

kirrōg ‘skilful; craftsman; artisan’ < *kṛnau̯a-ka- (OPers. kṛnuvaka-, Paz. kə̄rō, cf. Armen. karoġ ‘able, capable; potent’),

kirrōgbed ‘chief of the (royal) artisans, head craftsman’ < *kṛnau̯aka-pati- (Armen. kṙogpet).

parr ‘feather, wing’ < *parna- (Av. parǝna- nt., Skt. parṇá- nt. ‘feather, wing, leaf’, Khot. pārra- ‘feather’, Sogd. parn, Khwar. pan, Wax. pār, Šuγ. pūn, Pašt. pāṇra ‘leaf’, Bal. pan/ pann ‘leaf’, phar ‘wing, feather’, Yaγ. pan ‘blade of a wheel of a water-mill’, cf. Parth. pannag ‘foliage, leaves’).

purr ‘full; high tide’ < *pṛH-na- (Av. pǝrǝna- adj., Skt. pūrṇá- adj. ‘filled’, Khot. purra-, Sogd. purn, Yaγ. pun, cf. Av. aspǝrǝnah- nt.),

espurr ‘complete, perfect, entire’ < *us-pṛna- (Khot. uspurra-, Sogd. ǝspurn, Bactr. ασπορο, σπορο, Paz. spur),

spurrīg ‘id.’ (Bactr. ασποριγο, σποριγο, Paz. spurī, Pers. سپری).

purr ‘hollow hand’ rendering Av. pǝrǝnā- f. ‘handful’ (it is a mot savant used in ritual context).

varr ‘wool; covering, garment; royal mantle’ < *u̯arnā- (Av. varǝnā- f., Skt. ū́rṇā- f. ‘wool’, Khwar. vān-, Šuγ. wůn, safēd-wůn ‘who wears a white dress’, Rōš. wāwn ‘wool’, Armen. vaṙ ‘mantle, royal robe’, cf. Lit. vìlna).

varrag ‘lamb, agnus; Aries’ < *u̯arna-ka- (Sogd. vǝrān ‘lamb’, varg ‘Aries’, Osset. wær, Bal. gvarak/ gvark ‘lamb’, Kurd. berx, Pers. بره , cf. Skt. úran- m. ‘lamb’, uraṇaka- m. ‘ram, sheep’).

zarr ‘gold’ < *zarn-a/u-, zárani̯a- (OPers. daraniya- nt., Av. zarańya- nt., Skt. híraṇya- nt., Parth. zarn, Sogd. zern, Bactr. ζαρο, Khot. ysīrra-, Osset. I zærīn),

zarrgar ‘goldsmith’ (OPers. daraniyakara- m., Skt. hiraṇyakārá-, Sogd. zernkarē, Parth. zarngar).

burr-, brīn-: brīd ‘to cut, rend, detach, sever; determine’ < *briH-na- (Av. °brīna- ‘to cut’, Skt. bhrī, bhrīṇánti ‘to injure, hurt’, Khot. birr-, Osset. I ælvynyn, D ælvinun, Yaγ. virinak, Bal. burag, Paz. brīn-).

3.15.5. The alternation of two liquids l and r:

rāb/ lāb ‘supplication, entreaty’ < *rāpa- (Skt. rap/ lap ‘to chatter, talk; wail, lament, weep’, lāpa- m. ‘talking’, Parth. lāb, ālāb < *ā-lāpa-),

rābag/ lābag ‘id.’ (Pers. لابه, لاف).

rarz-/ larz- ‘to tremble, shiver’ < *rarz-a- (Parth. larz-, Sogd. vilarz-/ virarz- ‘to tremble’ < *u̯i-rarz-a-).

nālišn/ nārišn ‘lamentation, moaning’ < *nārdašna-.

3.15.6. r < *hr

rōd ‘river’ < *hrau̯tah- < *srau̯tas- (OPers. rautah- nt. ‘river’, Av. θraotah- nt., Skt. srótas- nt. ‘stream, current, river’, sravát- f., Khot. rauvä, Sogd. rōt, Bal. rōt, rōδ ‘high bank of a torrent or stream’, cf. Sogd. rāvat, Pers. راود ‘a verdant flowery hill and dale’ < *rāu̯ati-).

rōdestāg, also rōstāg ‘river-bed; district’ < *hrau̯tas-tāka- (Pers. روستا , Arab. رستاق , رسداق , رزداق . Cf. Av. θraotō.stāc- ‘which flows in the stream’, Vd 18.63 θraotō.stācąm: sraotō-tazišnān, Sogd. ōtāk ‘place’, Bactr. ταγο ‘river’, ωδαγο ‘district’).

3.15.7. r < **uru̯* < **u̯r*

rāsn bot. < *uru̯āsnā- < *u̯rāćnā- (Av. urvāsnā- f. a kind of wood, Pers. راسن ‘elecampane; juniper’).

rēs- : rišt ‘to spin; twist’ < *uru̯ai̯sai̯a-: *uru̯išta- < *u̯rai̯ć-ai̯a- (Av. urvisya- pres., urvaēsaya- caus. pres., urvišta- ppp., Yaγ. riwēš-ak, Osset. alvīsyn, Pašt. wrēšǝl, rēšǝl, Bal. brēs-aγ, rēsaγ),

rištag ‘spun, string’ < *uru̯išta-ka-, but arvēs ‘rope’ (Av. urvaēsa- m. ‘turn’, Pers. ارویس ).

3.15.8. The insertion of r after initial b:

brahnag ‘naked; without equipment’ < *bagna-ka- (Av. maγna-, Sogd. βǝγnē).

§ 3.16. l

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic l:

lab ‘lip’; nālag ‘groan’; gil ‘mud’.

3.16.1. l represents the old phoneme r in a few words:

angul ‘finger, toe’ < *angurV- (Av. °aŋura-, Skt. aṅgúri- f. ‘finger, toe’, aṅgúli- f. ‘finger’, aṅgula- m. ‘finger’s breadth’, Wakh. yāngǝl, Yaγ. yangl, Bal. angul, Tab. engel, Pers. انگل ).

kal (older karv) ‘thin-haired’ < *karu̯a- < *kĺH-uo- (Av. kaurva- adj., cf. Skt. áti-kulva- adj. ‘too bald’, Lat. calvus).

lāb (also rāb) ‘entreaty, supplication’ < *lāpa- < *rā-pa- (Skt. rap, rápati ‘to chatter, talk’, cf. Pers. لابه, also لاف?).

laškar (older raškar) ‘army’ < *Hraxša-kara- (Armen. erašx ‘surety, security’ < *raxši-, Arab. عسکر ).

lēs-/ lēz-: lišt ‘to lick’ < rai̯z-a-.

zāl (dāl) ‘old’ < *zāra- (Skt. jā́ra- adj. ‘becoming old’, Lur. dālū ‘old woman’).

3.16.2. l is the result of *r followed by coronal clusters:

ālag/ ārag ‘side, bank’ < *arda-ka- (Av. arǝδa- m. ‘side, half’, arǝδah- nt. ‘side’, Skt. árdha- m., Parth. ārag, Khot. hala- ‘half’, Bactr. αρλο ‘side’, παδαρλογο ‘opposing side’, Osset. D ærdæg ‘half’, Tokh. B ārte ‘canal’).

āluh/ āluf ‘eagle’ < *ṛdifi̯a- < *ṛj́ifi̯a- (Av. ǝrǝzifya- m. ‘eagle’, name of a mountain’, ǝrǝzifyō.parǝna- adj. ‘eagle-winged’, Gīl. ālūγ).

alun/ alum, also arzan ‘millet’ < *arzana- (Khot. ą̄ysaṃ, Baxt. halum, Paz. halum).

bāliš ‘cushion, pillow’ < *barziš- (Av. barǝziš- nt. ‘a blown-up thing, cushion’, Skt. barhíṣ- nt. ‘straw, a bed of Kuśa grass’, Osset. baz ‘cushion’, Bal. barzī ‘large sack’). buland ‘high, tall; aloud’ < *bṛdantam < *bṛzantam < *bṛj́ant- (Av. bǝrǝzaṇt-).

dālmen or dālman ‘lammergeyer, eagle’ < *darnu-mani- < *j́arnu-mani- ‘gold neck’ (Av. zarǝnu.maini- adj. ‘lammergeyer’).

dil ‘heart’ < *dṛd- < *źṛd- (Av. zǝrǝd- nt., Skt. hŕ̥d-, Parth. zirδ, Sogd. δǝržē, Khot. ysära-, Osset. zærdæ, Bal. zird).

gilag ‘complaint’ < *gṛda-ka- < *gṛzā- (Av. gǝrǝzā- f., Pers. گله ), cf. garz- ‘to complain, lament’ < *garza- < *gárj́h-a-.

gul ‘flower; rose’ (also vard) < *u̯arda-/ *u̯ṛda- (Osset. I wardi, Sīvandī vel).

halag ‘absurd, nonsensical, void of understanding’ < *harda-ka- (Paz. halaa, cf. Pers. الکی), also harzag ‘loose; vain’ (Pers. هرز, هرزه).

¹māl-: mušt ‘to rub, sweep’ (also marz-) < *marda- < *marza- (OPers. °marda-, Av. marǝza-).

mulā ‘neck’ < *mṛzāu̯am (Av. mǝrǝzu- ‘peg, vertebra’, Pašt. warmēẓ, Zaza mil ‘neck’, cf. Pers. مازه, مازو ‘back-bone, spine’).

mulān ‘belly’ < *mǝrdāna- < *mṛzāna- (Av. mǝrǝzāna- nt.).

nāl- (also nār-) ‘to moan, groan, whine, lament, cry out’ < *nárd-a- (Skt. nard ‘to bellow, roar’, °nardati, Sogd. narδ-, Parth. nār-, Osset. I næryn, D nærun ‘to thunder’ Bal. nār-aγ ‘to roar’, nāra ‘bellow, roar’, nǝrd ‘shout’, Pašt. naṛǝl, nāṛǝm).

palang ‘panther; leopard’ < *pardanku- (Sogd. purδang < *pṛdanku-, Skt. pŕ̥dāku- m. ‘panther, tiger’, Pašt. pṛāng ‘panther’, pṛangai ‘leopard’, cf. Gr. πάρδος ‘pard, male leopard’).

pālēz ‘garden, park’ < *pari-dai̯za- (Av. pairi.daēza- m. ‘enclosure’, Sogd. pǝrδēz ‘garden, orchard’, Gr. παράδεισος ‘wild park’, Armen. partēz ‘garden’, Mand. pardasa ‘pleasure-garden, paradise’).

puhl ‘bridge, ford’ < *pṛθu- < *pṛtu- (Av. pǝrǝtu- m., pǝṣu- m., Bal. puhal, Pers. پل).

sāl/ sār ‘year’ < *sarda- < *śard-a- (OPers. θard- f., Av. sarǝda- adj. ‘of the year’, Skt. śarád- f. ‘autumn; year’, Parth. sarδ, Sogd. sǝrδi, Khot. salī, Bactr. σαρδο, Khwar. sarδ, Osset. I. særd, D særdæ ‘summer’).

sālār (also sārār) ‘chieftain, chief, leader; guardian’ < *sar(a)-dāra- (Parth. sardār, Bact. σαρλαρο, σαλαρο, Armen. saġar, Tokh. B salār pr. n., king of Kuča).

spul (also spurz < *spṛźan-) ‘spleen’ < *spṛdan- < *spḷj́han- (Av. spǝrǝzan- m., Skt. plīhán- m. < *plīj́hán-, Khot. ṣpuljei, Yid. spǝrzǝ, Yazd. svarz, Bal. isphulk, Lakī espel, Paz. sparz).

ul ‘up’ < *ṛdu̯a- < *ṛdhu̯á- (Av. ǝrǝδβa-, ǝrǝdva- ‘high, vertical’, Skt. ūrdhvá- adj. ‘erected, upright’, Khot. ula-, cf. Gr. ὀρθός ‘straight, upright, erect; nominative’).

vāl- ‘to grow, increase’ < *u̯arda- < *Hu̯árdh-a- (Av. varǝδa-/ G varǝda-).

vālan / gulan ‘commune, community; settlement, town’ < *u̯ṛdana-/ *u̯ardana- < *u̯ṛzana- (OPers. vṛdana- nt., Av. vǝrǝzə̄na- nt.).

hil-: hišt ‘to leave, allow, dismiss, abandon, let go’ < *hṛda- (< *sṛj́-á-): *hṛšta- (Av. harz, hǝrǝza- pres., °haršta- ppp., Skt. sṛjáti, sṛṣṭá-, Parth. hirz-, Bactr. υιρζ-: υιρτο, Paz. hə̄l-).

3.16.3. hl < rt, rθ

hamahl, hamāl ‘peer, equal; comrade; fellow’ < *ham-arθa- (Sogd. amarθ, cf. Khot. hamāla- ‘association’, hamālaā- ‘group’, cf. Av. hamǝrǝθa- m. ‘opponent, competitor’ rendered by hamēmāl).

mahlī (also mārī, mašī) ‘(first) Man’ < *martii̯a-, mahlyānī (also māryānī, mašyānī, murdiyānag) ‘(first) woman’ < *martii̯ānī-.

pahlūg ‘side, rib’ < *parθu-ka- (Av. parǝsu- f., Skt. párśu- f. ‘rib; curved knife, sickle’, Khot. pālsuā- ‘rib; spoke of wheel’, Sogd. pǝrs- f. ‘side, flanc’, Osset. fars ‘side’, Waxī purs, Kurd. pārsū, Gīl. pālū).

Pahlav/ Pahlō ‘Parthia’ < *parθau̯a- (OPers. parθava- ‘Parthia; Parthian’, Parth. inscr. prswby, Skt. pahlavāḥ m. pl.).

pahlum ‘foremost, best, excellent; superior’ < *parθama- < *pŕ̥-tama- (Armen. pʿartʿam ‘wealthy, opulent’, Paz. pahlum, Pers. , , cf. Παρθαμα-σπάτης name of a Parthian prince).

3.16.4. A word for ‘spade’:

bēl (also bēr) < *baxδra- < *baxθra- (Av. baxǝδra- nt., Bal. bard, Yazdī bārda, Baškardī bahr, Armen. bah ‘spade, hoe, mattock’, Osset. bel, Pers. بال، بیل , Arab. بال ).

A word for ‘millet’:

gāl/ gāvars < *gáu̯arsa- (Khot. ga̰usä-, Yid. γavarso ‘millet’, gāl ‘Panicum italicum’, Shuγ. ǰuwōxč´, Par. gāš).

3.16.5.

Luhrāsp pr. n. comes from Av. aurvat̰.aspa-.

almās/ armās ‘hard metal; diamond; adamant’ comes from Gr. ἀδάμας.

lagēnag ‘pitcher, jug’ comes from Gr. λάγηνα (Aram. לָּגִּינ . Cf. also Khot. lakāna- ‘vessel’ from Gr. λεκάνη ‘basin, tub’, Armen. lakan, Arab. لقان , Pers.لگن ).

Pārsīg shares the word for ‘lame’ with Indian: lang (Skt. laṅga- adj. ‘lame, limping’).

Cf. also Pers.لنگ/ لند lang/ land ‘penis’ (Skt. liṅga- nt. ‘sign, mark; male organ, Phallus’, Av. °iriṇga-), ling ‘leg’ (Gīl. lag ‘leg’).

lōz (Aram. לוּזָּא ‘almond’), lōzēnag ‘almond-pasty, almond cake’ (Arab. لوزينج ).

§ 3.17. s

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic s:

sāg ‘number’; āsān ‘quiet, tranquil, restful, easy’; pās ‘watch-post, guard’, mast ‘intoxicated; must’.

The sibilant s comes from various sources.

3.17.1. It continues the old phoneme /s/:

afsar-: afsurd ‘to cool down, freeze, congeal’ < *apa-sṛi̯a-: *°sṛta- < *ḱḷH-o- (Osset. I sælyn: sald, D sælun: sald, Yaγ. ōsir- ‘to freeze’ < *ā-sṛi̯a-),

afsār-: afsārd ‘to cool, congeal, cause to freeze; extinguish (fire)’ < *apa-sār-ai̯a- (Sogd. pǝsēr°).

āsnāy- ‘to wash, bathe, cleanse’ < *ā-snāi̯a-: *ā-snāta- (Av. snā, ā-snaya-, fra-snāδaya- caus. pres., fra-snāta-, G hūšnāθra- adj. ‘with good places for bathing’ < *su-snā-tra-, Skt. snā, snā́ti, snātá-, Sogd. snāy-: snāt ‘to wash, bathe’, fǝsnāy- ‘to swim’ < *fra-snāi̯a-, Khot. haysñ-, haysnāta- < *fra-snāta-, Yaγn. sināy-, asināy- ‘to wash’, Pers.شناه، آشناه، شنار ).

nask ‘an Avesta book’ < naska- (Av. naska- m., naskō.frasa- adj. ‘who studies the Avesta books’: naskhamuxtišnīh),

varmnask ‘who knows the naska by heart’.

rasan ‘rope, cord’ < *rasana- (Skt. raśanā́- f., Armen. erasan ‘rein, bridle; snaffle’, aṙasan ‘twine, string, cord’, Heb. רֶֶׁ֫סֶן ).

sabad ‘basket, box’ < *spatā- (Khot. sava, Šuγ. sipt ‘round basket’, Armen. sapat, sapatak ‘basket, hamper, pannier, trunk, coffer’).

sadāb bot. ‘rue, Ruta graveolens’ < *satāpa- (Arab. سذاب ).

sagr ‘satiated, full; satisfied, happy’ < *sag-ra- (Tokh. A sākār ‘happy’).

sahōg ‘hare; rabbit’ from Av. *saŋhō nom. sg. + -ka- (Skt. śaśá- m. ‘hare’, śaśaka- m. ‘small hare’, Khot. saha-, Par. sahȫk, Pašt. sōe, Yid. sīγ, Paz. sǝyā).

sālār (also sārār) ‘chieftain, chief, leader; guardian’ < *sar(a)-dāra-.

san-: sad ‘to ascend, go up, rise’ < *san-a-: *sata- (Av. sana- pres., Khot. sarb-: sata-, Sogd. sǝn-: sǝt ‘to rise’, Yaγ. san-ak ‘to rise’),

ōsan-: ōsad ‘to descend’ < *au̯a-sana-,

sān- ‘to raise, ascend’ < *sānai̯a- (Khot. sāñ-, Sogd. sēn- ‘to raise’, Yaγ. sayn-ak),

ōsān- ‘to throw down, push off’ < *au̯a-sānai̯a-.

sar ‘head; top’ < *sara-,

sār ‘head’ < *sāra- (Av. sarah- nt. ‘head’, sāra- m. ‘id.’, Skt. śíras- nt., Sogd. sǝr, sār, pǝtsārē, Bactr. σαρο, σαρ°, Yaγ. sar, Osset. I sær),

abesar (also afsar) ‘that which is on the head; crown’ < *upa-sarah- (Paz. aβsar),

nigūsār ‘head downward, inverted’ < *ni-kūna-sāra- (Pers. سرنگون , نگوسار),

sārvār ‘helmet’ < sāra-u̯āra- (Av. sāravāra- m.).

sār* < *sāru- (Skt. śā́lā- f. ‘building, house, room’, śālá-, Lat. cella, cf. Eng. hall),

sārbāg (also sarbūg) < sāru-pāka- (Sogd. sārβāγ, sārβūγ ‘tower’, Pers. چارباغ),

Sārūg* < *sāru-ka- (Arab. ساروق name of a labyrinthine castle, Pers. ساروی, سارویه ).

sard ‘cold’ < *sarta- < *ćartá- (Av. sarǝta- adj., Sogd. sǝrt, Yaγ. sōrt, Khot. sāḍa, Osset. sald, Bal. sārt, sard, cf. Skt. śiśira- adj. ‘cool, chilly, freezing’, cf. Lit. šaltis),

sardāg ‘cold season, coldness’.

saxtag ‘prepared, equipped; prepared leather’ < *saxta-ka- (Av. °saxta-, Pers. سختیان ‘goat’s leather, morocco’).

say-: sĭd ‘to lie down, sleep’ < *sai̯-a-: *sita- < *ćái̯H- (Av. saē- pres., saēte < *sai̯tai̯, sita- ppp., Skt. śáye, °śita-, Khot. śśä-te, Osset. I sæjyn: sad, D sæjun).

snăh ‘strike’ < *snaθa- (Av. snaθa- adj. ‘striking’, m. ‘blow, stroke’),

ped snah ‘by force’.

sneh ‘weapon’ < *snaθiš- (Av. snaiθiš- nt., cf. Arab. سلاح ),

snehumand ‘armed’.

snōh- (also snōy-) ‘to wail, weep’ < *snau̯d-a- (Av. snaoδa-ṇt- adj. ‘weeping’, Yt 19.80 snaoδǝṇtīš gǝrǝzānå).

snōy ‘rain cloud’ < *snau̯da- (Av. snaoδa- m., Bal. noδ ‘rain clouds, rain’).

sōz-: suxt ‘to burn’ < *sau̯c-ai̯a-: suxta- (Av. saocaya- pres., °suxta- ppp., Skt. śócati, Khot. sūjs-, Sogd. sōc-: suγd).

sōzan ‘needle’ < *sau̯cana- (Osset. I sūʒin or sūdzīn, D sodzīnæ, Par. sīčīn, Bal. sūčin, sīšin, Kurd. šūžin, Šuγ. sij, cf. Av. sukā- f. ‘needle’, Khot. suṃjasñu ‘id.’, Skt. sūcī́- f.).

sūd ‘profit, advantage, benefit, lucre’ < *sūti- (Bactr. σοδο, Bal. sīθ ‘profit’, sīθ-tān ‘profit and loss’, Paz. sūt̰, cf. Khot. sau ‘advantage’).

sūg ‘light; sight; glow’ < *sūka- < *ćuk-á- (Av. sūka- adj. ‘seeing’, m. ‘light; illumination; eyesight’, sūc- f. ‘glow, radiance’, sūca- ‘clear’, Skt. śúc- ‘ray, radiance’, śucā́-śucā cf. Pers. سوسو , śucá-, Gīl. سو ‘light’, کون سو کنه ‘fire-fly’).

sumb-: suft ‘to pierce, bore’ < *sunb-ai̯a- (Sogd. sunp-/ sumb-: suβd, Bal. sub-aγ: subtha, Pers. سنبیدنسفتن , cf. Skt. śvábhra- nt. ‘hole, pit’).

sūr ‘morning meal; feast, banquet’ < *sūri̯a- < *ćuri̯a- (Av. sūra- adj. ‘morning’, sūirya- nt. ‘morning meal’, cf. Khot. sūraka-).

sūrāg ‘hole, aperture, gap’ < *sūrākă- (Pers. سولاخ, سوراخ < *sūrāxă-, Paz. sūrāe, sūlā).

kas ‘some (one, body)’,

kas-iz < *ka-s-cit (OPers. kašciy, Av. kascit̰/ G kascīt̰, Skt. káś-cit, káś cid ‘anyone’, kíṁ-cid ‘anything’, Parth. kež).

pas ‘after, behind, later, then, afterwards, next’ < *pasā < *pascā < *paścā (OPers. pasā, Av. pasca, Skt. paścā́, Parth. paš, Sogd. pǝš, Bal. paš, Khot. pātcu, Osset. fæs-).

ras- ‘to arrive, reach’ < *rasa- < *Hṛ-sća- (OPers. ṛsa-, Skt. ṛcchá-ti).

s < OPers. θ < *s:

pēs-: pišt ‘to adorn, paint; engrave, carve, inscribe’ < *pai̯sa- < *pai̯ć-a- (OPers. piθ, paiθa-/ pinθa-, Av. pis, paēsa- pres., pišta-/ pixšta- ppp., Skt. peś, pim̐śáti, Osset. I fyssin: fyst, D finsun: finst),

nibēs- ‘to write’ < *ni-pai̯sa- (OPers. ni-piθ, nipišta-, Sogd. nǝpēs-: nǝpixšt, Bactr. νιβισ-/ ναβισ-: ναβιχτο, Khowar nivēšik ‘to write’, Šuγ. nǝwiš-, Bal. nibīs-ag, Paz. niβə̄s-: naβašt, Pers. نویس, نوشت).

sad ‘hundred’ < *sáta- (OPers. θata°, Av. sata-, Sogd. sǝt, Bactr. σαδο).

sah- (also say-) ‘to seem, appear’ < *sadai̯a- < *sćad-ai̯a- (OPers. θadaya- pres., Av. sadaya-/ saδaya- pres., Sogd. sǝδ-, Paz. šīh-).

sāl/ sār ‘year’ < *θard < *sard-.

sang ‘stone’ < *asánga- < *aśanga- (OPers. aθanga-, Av. asəṇga- m., Parth. asang, Khot. saṃgga-, Sogd. sang/k, Yaγ. sank, Išk. sůng, Paz. saṇg).

saxt ‘passed’ < *saxta- (OPers. θakata-, Av. saxta- verbal adj. from sac, Parth. saxt, Sogd. sǝγd, cf. Khot. sāta- ‘passing of time, time’, skyätä ‘time’).

sāyag (also āsāyag) ‘shade, shadow; shelter’ < *sāi̯a-ka- < *ćāi̯ā- (Av. a-saya- ‘without shade’, Skt. chāyā́- f. ‘shade’, acchāyá- ‘without shade’, Sogd. sǝyāk, Khwar. sayāk, Yaγ. siyōka, Pers. سایه).

sig ‘sand, gravel’ < *sikā-,

sigad ‘id.’ < sikatā- (OPers. θikā- f. ‘gravel’, Skt. síkatā- f., Khot. siyatā-, Sogd. šikǝt, Pašt. šǝga, Wan. sǝga, Bal. six ‘sand, barren land’, Osset. I syǵyt, D sigit ‘earth’),

sag meaning ‘stone’ is influenced by sang: sagēn ‘stony’ renders Av. zarštvaēna- adj. (Arab. سکن , سجن ‘stony place’ or ‘sandy’),

saggil ‘stoned-clay’ (Arab. سجّيل ‘lumps of baked clay; marl’).

suxr ‘red’ < *θuxra- < *suxra- (OPers. θuxra- pr. n. m., Av. suxra- adj., Skt. śukrá-, Osset. I syrx, D surx, Orm. šuš, Bal. suhr, sōr ‘red; gold’ Pers.سرخ ).

syā (also syāh) ‘dark, black’ < *si̯āu̯a- < *śi̯ā-u̯a- (Av. syāva- adj. ‘dark, black’, Skt. śyāvá- adj. ‘dark-brown’, Khot. śāva- ‘copper’, adj. ‘red’, Sogd. šāv, šov ‘black’, Yaγ. šāv, Parth. syāv, Khwar. sāv, Armen. seav, Osset. saw, cf. Elam. ši-ia-ma, ti-ia-ma),

āb ī syāh ‘black water’ (Mand. mayā siyāvā, Paz. āβ ī syāh, Sogd. šāv āp, Yaγ. šōv ōp),

syāhag, syāg ‘black; blackness; eye-socket; minute’ (Parth. syāvag, Bal. syāhaγ, Arab. سياق ),

Syāvaš < Av. syāvaršan- m. name of a kavi.

vis ‘village, settlement’ (OPers. viθ- f. ‘royal house’, Av. vis-/ G vīs- f., Skt. víś- f. ‘a clan’s settlement, habitation’, Khot. bisā- ‘house’, Sogd. vis°, Bal. gis ‘house, household’, Par. γus ‘id.’).

s < **si̯* < * śi̯

kasap (also kašapag, kašavag) ‘tortoise, turtle’ < *kaśi̯apa- (Av. kasyapa- m., Skt. kaśyápa-, Sogd. kǝšap, Bal. kāsib ‘tortoise’, Osset. xæfs ‘frog’, Pers. کشف, کشپ).

s < s < sḱ(h)

abesin- ‘to cut off, destroy, annihilate’ < *apa-sina-: *apa-sista-,

abesīh- ‘to be destroyed, perish’ < *apa-sid-i̯a- (Av. sid, °hisid- perf., °sista- ppp., ava-sid ‘to cut off, split’, Skt. chinátti, chinná-, Parth. abasist, Sogd. siδ- ‘to destroy’, ǝpsēδ- ‘to fail, run out’, ōsǝnd ‘to break’, Bactr. αβ-σιστο, Gīl. fusan-: fusas < *apa-sid),

abesihēn- caus. ‘to destroy’ < apa-sid-ai̯anai̯a-),

frasin-: frasist ‘to break (through)’ < *fra-sina- (Waxī raseδ-: rasǝn- ‘to break [cords]’, rasüδ-: rasan ‘to cut off’),

visin- (older visiy-) ‘to tear, split, shatter’ < ṷi-sid-a- (Skt. vi-chid ‘to cut, tear, separate, break assunder’, Pers. گسل، گسستن).

3.17.2. s < *θ

sīr bot. ‘garlic’ < *θigra- (cf. OPers. θāigraci month name).

sīrāz (also šīrāz) top. < θīrācĭ- (Elam. ti-ra-iz-zi-iš, ši-ra-iz-zi-iš, Pers. شیراز).

sīz ‘peril, danger’ < *θi̯ajah- (Av. iθyejah- nt., Skt. tyájas- nt. ‘danger, trouble, harassment’).

s < θ < d

sanvar ‘cross-bow; rainbow’ < *θanu̯ar- < danu̯an/r- (OPers. θanuvan-, θanuvaniya- m. ‘bowman’, Av. θanvan/r- nt. ‘bow’, Skt. dhánuṣ- nt. ‘bow’, dhánvan-).

3.17.3. s continues the old Persian ç which historically comes from θr < tr or from *sr:

dās ‘sickle’ < *dāça- < *dāθra- (Skt. dā́tra- nt., Pašt. lōr, Par. dēš, Wax. dïtr, Gīl. dāz, dāhrē).

hămis ‘together, in all’ < *hamiça-/ *hamiçii̯a- < *hammisra- (Parth. hamīr, Paz. xāmast, cf. Skt. sám-miśla- adj. ‘joined, connected’).

pās ‘watch-post, guard’ < *pāça- (Av. pāθra- nt., Sogd. pāš ‘watch, service, respect’, pāšē ‘guardian’, Paz. pāš).

pus (also puhr) ‘son’ < *puça- (OPers. puça- m., Av. puθra- m., Skt. putrá-, Parth. puhr, Khot. pūra-, Bactr. πορο, πουρο, Sogd. pǝšē, Par. puš, Yazγ. poc ‘son’, pöc ‘daughter’),

abus (or, a-pus) ‘childless, sonless’ < *a-puça- (Av. apuθra- adj., Skt. a-pútra- adj.),

ābus ‘pregnant, conceiving’ < *āpuçā- (Av. apuθrā- adj. f., Bal. āpus, āps, Baš. yōpes),

ābusīh ‘pregnancy; childbirth’ (Av. apuθrya- nt., upas.puθrya- nt. from *upas.puθrā- adj. f.),

ābustan (also ābestan) ‘pregnant’ < *ā-puça-tanu- ‘containing child within the body’ (Paz. āβastan),

pusyān ‘womb, uterus’ < *puθra-dāna-.

sabuk ‘light, easy’ < *çapu-ka-ka- < *θrapu-ka- (Pašt. spuk, Bal. sawakk, Lakī sōvek, Yazdī sovok. Cf. Skt. trápu- nt. ‘tin’).

sahm (also sam) ‘fear; terror’ < *çahma(n)- < *θrah-ma(n)- (cf. Av. θrah ‘to fear’, Skt. tras ‘id.’),

sahmgen ‘terrific, terrible’ < *çahmakaina-.

sēn or sōn (also srēn/ srōn) ‘hip, buttock’ < *çau̯ni- (Av. sraoni- f., Khot. ṣṣūni-, Sogd. šōn, Šuγ. x̌ūn, Osset. I sīn, D sujnæ ‘thigh’).

si, sē ‘three’ < *çai̯-ah < *θrăi̯-ah.

sust ‘lazy, sluggish, slack’ < *çusta- < *θrusta- (cf. Georg. susti ‘weak, feeble’).

sūy (also srūy) ‘horn; nail’ < çuu̯a- (Khot. ṣū- ‘horn’, Waxī ṣǝu ‘id.’, Osset. I sy, D siwæ ‘horn’, I dysygon, D dusugon ‘two-horned’).

šasab (also šahrab) ‘strap, governor’ < *xšaça-pā(u̯an)- (OPers. xšaçapāvan-).

s < š < ćš

gursag (also vǝrsag, gušnag) ‘hungry’ < *u̯ṛš-i̯a-ka- < *u̯ṛćš- (Av. varǝšya- adj., Sogd. vǝšn, Paz. gursaa, gursagą, varš, Pers. گرس ‘hunger’).

sōr ‘salty, saline’ < *šaura- < *ćšau̯ra- (Parth. šōr ‘salt desert’, šōrēn ‘salty’, Khot. ṣūra-, Osset. sur/ sor, Bal. sor ‘salt, brackish’, Zaza sol ‘salt’, Pers. شور , cf. Skt. kṣāra- adj. ‘caustic, acrid, saline’),

sorābag ‘brine’ (cf. Bal. soreṅ-āf ‘brackish water’).

suy (also šuy) ‘hunger’ < *šud-a- < *ćšúdh- (Av. šuδa- m., Skt. kṣúdh- f.).

xirs ‘bear’ < *ṛša- < *ŕ̥ćša- (Av. arša-, Skt. ŕ̥kṣa-, Sogd. ǝšša, Šuγ. yūrx̌, Zaza xēc, Tab. āš).

s < *ś < **ci̯*

āsam- ‘to sip, swallow’ < ā-śam-a-, cf. āšām-.

s < *st

saxt (cf. also staft) ‘hard, firm’ (Av. staxta- adj. ‘firm, severe’).

sūdgar = stūdgar, cf. Av. stūtō garō ‘(the collection of) praises (and) invocations’.

3.17.4. sp

gōspend (lit. ‘holy cow’) ‘beneficient animal, small cattle, sheep’ < *gau̯-spanta- < *gau̯-śu̯anta- (Av. gao.spǝṇta-, Kuhg. gusend, Kumzārī gosan, Paz. gōspǝṇd).

spāh ‘army’ < *spāda- (OPers. taxma-spāda- pr. n., Av. spāδa-/ G spāda- m., Sogd. ǝspāδ),

spāhbed ‘army-commander, general’ < *spā́da-pati- (Bactr. σπαλοβιδο/ ασπαλοβιδο, Khot. spātā- ‘military official’, Armen. sparapet ‘general officer commanding in chief’, aspahapat ‘cavalry officer’),

spāhsālar ‘commander-in-chief’ (Armen. spasalar ‘general, officer commanding’).

spar-: spurd ‘to tread, trample’ < *spar-a- < *sphǝrá- (Av. spara- pres., Skt. sphuráti, Khot. āspar-, Osset. I æfsæryn, D æfsærun),

spār ‘wine-press’ (Pers. سپار ),

nispar- ‘to tread underfoot’ (Pers. نسپار ‘place where grapes are pressed’).

spar (also espar) ‘shield’ < *spara- (Skt. phram nt., Armen. aspar ‘buckler, shield defense’),

sparag (Skt. pharaka-, pharatka- m.),

sparvar ‘shield-bearer, shield-man’ (Ἡσύχιος σπαραβάραι· οἱ γεῤ(ῥ)οφόροι).

spas- (also espas-): spašt ‘to serve’ < *spasi̯a-: *spašta- < *spáć-i̯a- (Av. spas ‘to see, look upon’, spasya- pres., °spašta- ppp., Skt. páśyati ‘sees, watches’, spaṣṭá-, Khot. spāśś- ‘to look’, Sogd. ǝspeš-: ǝspǝxšt, Bactr. σπισ-, ασπασ-),

spās ‘service’ < *spāsa- (Sogd. ǝspās, Bactr. σπασο/ ασπασο, Armen. spas),

spāsīg ‘servant, attendant’ < *spāsii̯aka- (Bactr. ασπασιγο, Sogd. ǝspāsāk),

spasag ‘servant’ (Av. spas- m. ‘spy’, spasan- adj. ‘spying’, Skt. spáś-, Sogd. ǝspāsē).

spēd (also ǝspēd) ‘white’ < *spai̯ta- < *śu̯ai̯ta- (Av. spaēta- adj. ‘white, bright’, spiti°, Skt. śvetá-, śviti°, Khot. śśīta-, Sogd. ǝspēt, Yaγ. sipēta, Munj. spī, Bal. sweθ, Yazd. sevīd, Kumzārī spīr, Paz. spə̄t̰),

spēdag ‘white; white of egg’ < *spai̯ta-ka- (Sogd. ǝspētc, ǝspētē, Armen. spitak ‘white bent grass; silver coin’, Paz. spə̄daa, Pers. سپیده ‘white; dawn’, سفیده),

spēdāg ‘white lead, ceruse’ (Armen. spitak ‘white, white lead, ceruse; silver coin’, Arab. اسفيداج , Pers. اسپیذاب ),

spēdagšīr bot. ‘Euphorbia, milkwort’ (Pers. اسفیدکشیر),

spēddumbag z. ‘moorhen’ (Pers. سپیددم).

spendān bot. ‘mustard-seed, harmel-seed’ < *su̯anta-dāna- (Pašt. spānda ‘wild rue’, spalana ‘the seed of wild rue’, Orošorī sepăn, Pers. سپندان ), also Parth. šifšδān (Khot. śśaśvānä, Sogd. šywšpδn, cf. Skt. sarṣapa- m. ‘mustard, grain of mustard’).

spendarmed name of a deity < *su̯antā-aramati- (Av. spǝṇtā- ārmaiti-, Armen. sandaramet ‘abyss, hell’, cf. Cappadocian Σονδαρα),

spend/ spenn ‘holy’ < *su̯anta- < *śu̯anta-.

spēg (also espēg) ‘sparkle; bloom’ < *spai̯ka- from spēz- < *spij (spēg translates Av. frasparǝγa- ‘blossom’),

xvarspēg ‘sun radiance’.

spihr ‘firmament, celestial sphere; fate’ < *spiθra- < *śu̯iθra- < *ću̯itra- (Skt. śvitrá- adj. ‘whitish, white’, sī́sa- nt. ‘lead’ < OPers. siça-, cf. Kurd. sīs ‘whitered’),

Spihrdād pr. n. < *spiθra-dāta- (Gr. σπιθραδάτης).

spiš ‘louse’ < *spiš- < *su̯iš- (Av. spiš-, Sogd. špǝša, Yaγ. šipuš, Waxī šiš, Bakht. šiš < OPers. *siš-, Šīrāzī teš < *θiš- < *siš-, Baš. heš, Gīl. sabūj, Pers. شپش ).

There is a vacillation between s (OPers.) and sp (Med.) < *sp < **su̯* < **śu̯*:

asp ‘horse’ < *aspa- < *áśu̯a- (OPers. aspa-, asa°, Av. aspa-, Skt. áśva-, Khot. aśśa-, aśa-, Sogd. ǝsp, Khwar. asp, Bactr. ασπο, Osset. I jæfs, D æfsæ, Yid. yasp, Waxī yaš, Bal. aps, hasp, Pašt. ās m, Sangesarī asm, Kohrōdī ás), but asvār ‘rider, on horseback’ < *asa-bāra- (OPers. asa-bāra-, Skt. aśvavāra-, Bal. avzār, zavār),

astar ‘mule’ < *asa-tara- (cf. Skt. aśva-tará-, Bactr. ασποδαρο).

rasūg (also raspūg) z. ‘weasel’ < *raçu-ka- / *raspu-ka- (Pers. راسو ).

sag (also espag) ‘dog’ < *saka- < *śu̯aka- < ću̯ṇ-ka- (Av. span-, spaka-, Med. σπάκα, Skt. śván- m., śvaka-, Parth. espag, Khot. śve, Yazd. saba/ sva, svaka, Wax. šač, Orm. ǝspuk, Kum. sōγ),

sagdēs ‘as a dog’

visp ‘all, every’ < *u̯ispa- < *u̯iśu̯a- (OPers. visa-/ vispa°, Av. vīspa-, vispa-, Skt. víśva-, Sogd. visp, Khot. biśśä-/ Tum. biśa-, Bactr. οισπο, οισο),

harvisp ‘id.’ < *haru̯a-u̯ispa- (Khot. harbiśśa-).

sp < *θβ < **tu̯*

Av. θβ yielding sp is found in some scholarly words:

rāspīg ‘ritual official, subsidiary priest’ < *rāθβya-ka- (Av. raθβya- adj. ‘according to the ritual rules’, Skt. ṛtvíya- adj. ‘regular, proper’).

spāš ‘space, firmament’ is a “learned” rendering of Av. θβāṣa- adj. ‘fast, hurried’, nt. ‘firmament’ < *tu̯ăr-ta-. Cf. nixvār- < *ni-tu̯ār-ai̯a-.

The verb for ‘to rest’:

hasp- ‘to rest’ < *haspai̯a- < *hah-p-ai̯a- (Av. hah- pres., Skt. sas ‘to be inactive, sleep’, sásti, Khwar. hasf- ‘to rest’, hsfʾdk ‘calm’, Paz. asp-, cf. Khot. āspāta),

haspēn adj. ‘resting’, s. ‘rest, repose’ (Paz. aspīn).

3.17.5. sr

srav (also srō) ‘discourse; report, news; fame’ < *srau̯ah- (Av. saravah- nt. ‘word, utterance; renown’, Skt. śrávas- nt.),

husrav, husrō (also husrōg < *hu-srau̯a-ka-) ‘of good repute, famous; pr. n.’ < *hu-srau̯ah- (Av. husravah-, Skt. suśrávas- adj., pr. n., Copt. xasraw, Arab. کسری ), also kay hōsrō < Av. kavi- haosravah- pr. n. m.

sraxt ‘corner, side, edge’ < *sraxti- (Av. sraxti-, θraxti- f., Skt. sraktí- f.).

srāy-: srūd ‘to recite (by chanting), sing, play (on an instrument)’ < *srāu̯-ai̯a- < *śrāu̯-ai̯a- (Av. sruya- pass. pres., srāvaya- caus. pres., srŭta-, Skt. śṛṇóti, śrutá-, Sogd. srāv-, Parth. srāv-).

srēn/ srōn ‘buttocks’ (also sēn) < *srau̯ni- < *śrau̯ni- (Av. sraoni- f., Skt. śróṇi- f., Bal. srēn ‘thigh; loins, waist’, Pers. سرین, سرون ).

srēš-: srišt ‘to mix, knead, mould’ < *srai̯š-ai̯a-, sriš- < *sriši̯a- (Av. sriš-a- aor., Skt. śreṣ, ślíṣyati, ślíṣṭa-, Khot. ṣṣiṣ-ṭa-).

srōd ‘song; poem’ < *srau̯ta- (Av. sraota- nt. ‘the hearing’, Bal. sarōδ).

srōg ‘speech; hymn, psalm’ < *srau̯ka- (Skt. ślóka- m. ‘hymn of praise, stanza’, Sogd. srōk).

srūy, sruv (also sūy) ‘horn; nail; pong’ < *srū-, *sruu̯a- < *ćruH- (Av. srū- nt. ‘nail; claw; horn’, srvā- f. ‘id.’, Bactr. þουο ‘finger-nail’, Khwar. šuwik, Bal. srō, srong ‘horn’, surum ‘hoof’, Paz. srūi, Arab./ṣūr/ صور ‘horn of an animal, horn as a musical instrument’ < *sur < *srū-, Pers. سرو),

Pers. سرنای /surnāy/ ‘oboe’ is the intermediate form with anaptyxis *srunāy.

xvasrūg ‘mother-in-law’ < *hu̯aśru-ka- < *hu̯aśrū- (Skt. śvaśrū́-, Sogd. ǝxuš, Yidγ. xušo, Pašt. xwāṣa, Pers.خسرو خشو , خوش ), Pers. خسر , خسور /xusur/ ‘father-in-law’ < *hu̯aśura-.

sr < **str*

srīgar ‘female’ < *strī-kara- (Av. strī-, Skt. strī́- f. ‘woman, wife’, Khot. strīyā- ‘woman; female (of animal)’, Sogd. ǝstrīc < *strī-čī-ā-, Pašt. ṣǝja, Waz. šǝza, Par. šičak, Osset. I syl, D silæ).

sr < *θr

āsrōkirb(ag) ‘having the form of fire’ a mot savant from Av. *āθrō.kǝhrp- ≈ ātaš-kirb.

āsrōn ‘member of a priestly family, ordained priest; high-priest’ < *āθrau̯an-am < *atharu̯an-/ atharun- (Av. āθravan-/ aθaurun- m., Skt. átharvan- m. ‘a priest who has to do with fire and Soma’), āsrō(g) < *āθrau̯a(ka)- (Paz. āsrū).

ayāsrim name of the fourth Gāhāmbār < Av. ayāθrima-.

casrušūyag ‘one-fourth, quarter’ < *caθrušuu̯ada and -ka- (Av. caθrušva- nt., caθrušvaδa abl. sg.)

dāsr ‘alloted portion, share, gift’ a loan word from Av. dāθra- nt. ‘gift, payment’ (Skt. dātrá- nt.’, Pers. داره ‘stipend, salary’ < *dāθra-ka-).

dōisr ‘eye; intuition’ comes from Av. dōiθra- nt. ‘eye’.

hāsr ‘a measure of distance or time; time (gyāg ‘place’)’ comes from Av. hāθra- nt.

srāy-: srād ‘to protect, preserve’ < *θrāi̯a-: *θrāta- (Av. θrāya- pres., Yt 1.12 θrāta: srāyēnīdār, Skt. trā́y-ase, trātá-).

srišūyag ‘one-third, third part’ < θrišuu̯ada and -ka- (Av. θrišva- nt.).

šōisr ‘settlement’ comes from Av. šōiθra- nt. (Skt. kṣétra- nt., Khot. kṣīra-).

Metathesis:

ars ‘tear (drop)’ < asr < *aśru- (Av. asru°, asrū.azānō ‘choking with tears’, Skt. áśru- nt. ‘tear’, Khot. āṣka- < *aśru-ka-, Pašt. ōṣa, Bal. als, Osset. I syg, D sug, Pers. اشک ارس ).

3.17.6. st < *st

avestvār (also ōstvār) ‘trustworthy; entitled’, s. ‘elder of the family, guardian; commissioner’ < *au̯a-sta-bāra- (Paz. xvastvār, Pers.استوار ).

hamēstār ‘opponent, contrary; the adversary’ < *hamai̯stār-am (Av. hamaēstar- m., hamaēstārō, Paz. hamə̄stār).

pōst ‘skin, hide; peel; parchment’ (rendering Av. pąnsta- m. ‘skin’) < *pau̯asta/ā- (OPers. pavastā- ‘envelope’, Sogd. pōst, Šuγ. půst),

pōstag ‘parchment, book’ < *pau̯asta-ka- (Skt. pustaka- ‘manuscript, book’, Pāl. potthaka, Sogd. pōstē, Tokh. A postak, postäk, B postak, Khot. pūstya-, Pers. پوسته ).

rist ‘polluted, defiled; dead, dead body, corpse’,

ristag ‘id.’ < *rista- (Av. irista- ppp. of iriθ ‘to die’, irista-tanū- f. ‘corpse’: risttan).

sāstār ‘commander; tyrant’ < *sāst-ār-am (Av. sāstar- m., Skt. śāstár- m.).

stabr ‘stark, thick; grandiose; coarse’ < *stabra- (Av. staβra- adj., Parth. estaβr, Khot. staura-),

stabrag ‘shot silk, stiff silk’ < *stabra-ka- (Skt. stavaraka- a kind of cloth, Armen. ëstawrak ‘coarse silk stuff’, Arab. استبرق ‘thick silk brocade’).

star ‘star’ < *star-,

stār ‘id.’ < *stāram (Av. star- m., Skt. star-),

stārag ‘id.’ < *stā́ra-ka- (Parth. estārag, Khot. stāraa, Sogd. ǝstārē, Osset. I st’ly, D æst’alu, Šuγ. x̌itǟrj, Pers. ستاره ).

starvan ‘barren, sterile’ < *stáriu̯an- (Waxī sitrīn ‘barren, childless’, cf. Skt. starī́- f. ‘a barren cow, heifer’).

stāy-: stāyīd, stūd ‘to praise’ < *stāu̯-ai̯a-, *stu-ta- (Av. stao-, stāu- pres., °stŭta- ppp., Skt. stáuti, stāvayati, stutá-, Parth. estāv-, Khot. stav, Bactr. στοο-, Osset. staw-yn/un).

stōr ‘beast of burden’ < *stau̯ra- (Av. staora- ‘large domestic animal’, Skt. sthora- ‘pack animal’, Khot. stūra- ‘large cattle, horse’, Sogd. ǝstōr ‘cattle’, Yaγ. sutūr, Bactr. στωρο).

sturd ‘stunned, dazed, giddy, dizzy; confounded; paralyzed’ < *stṛta- (Av. stǝrǝta-).

sturg ‘coarse, big, strong’ < *stūra-ka- (Av. °stūra-, pairištūra-, Skt. sthūrá-, sthūlá-, Khot. stura-, Osset. I styr, D æstur, Bal. istūr).

vistar- ‘to spread; distribute’ < *u̯i-star-a-: *u̯i-star-ta-, or vistarr- < *u̯i-starna- (Av. star-, stǝrǝnu- pres., starǝta-/ stǝrǝta- ppp., Skt. stárati, stṛiṇóti, vi-star ‘to spread out, scatter; expand’, Khot. baṣṭarr-, Pers. -گستر),

vistar ‘covering, bedding, carpet, pillow; river-bed, reach (of a river)’ < *u̯istara- (Skt. vistara- m. ‘spreading, extension’, Khot. biṣṭara- ‘expanse’, Pers. بسترگستر ),

vistarg ‘bed, mattress’ < *u̯istáraka-m.

st < *št

angust ‘finger, finger-breadth; digit’ < *anguštă-.

ārāstār ‘arranger, adorner’ < *abi-rāštar-, °rāštāram (Av. rāštar- m. ‘director, master’, rāštarǝ.vaγǝṇti- pr. n. m., Skt. rā́ṣṭr-ī- f. a female ruler), cf. ārāy-: ārāst.

bālist (also bārist) ‘highest; summit’ < *barzišta-, superl. of buland (Av. barǝzišta-, Skt. bárhiṣṭha-).

dōst ‘loving, friend’ < *dau̯štā < *źau̯štar-.

drust ‘wholesome, sound, well’ < *druu̯išta-.

frēstag (also hrēstag) ‘messenger, apostle, angel’ < *frai̯šta-ka- (Av. fraēšta- m., Parth. frēštag, Sogd. frēštē ‘angel’, Armen. hreštak ‘angel, messenger, deputy, legate’, Paz. frīstaa, frīstagą).

kust ‘side, direction; waist’ < *kušti-, also thematised *kušt-a- (Armen. kušt ‘belly, κοιλία; waist, side, flank’, k̕ust ‘side, direction; district’, Pers. کشت ‘belly, waist, side, flank’, Paz. kūst),

kustīg ‘sacred girdle’ < *kušti-ka- (Armen. k̕ustik, Arab. کستيج، کوشتيج , Pers. کشتی ‘belt, girdle; wrestling’).

mahist ‘greatest; supreme’ < *maθišta-, opp. kahist (OPers. maθišta-, Av. mazišta-, Parth. masišt, Paz. mahə̄st),

mahistag ‘presbyter’.

must (also mušt) ‘fist’ < *mušti- (Av. mušti.masah-, Skt. muṣṭí- m. f., Khot. muṣṭu acc. sg., Šuγ. mut, Sangl. met, Pers. مشت ).

pist ‘(roasted) flour’ < *pišta- (Av. piš ‘to grind’, pištra- m., Pers. پست , cf. Skt. peṣ ‘to crush’, Lat. pīnsō ‘to beat, pound’, pistus pp.).

rāst ‘true, right, upright; straight, direct, just; inspired seer’ < *rāsta- < *rāšta- (OPers. rāsta- ‘right, straight’, Av. rāšta- ppp. of raz, Parth. rāšt, Khot. rraṣṭa- ppp. of rrays-, Khwar. rašt, Sogd. rǝšt, Bactr. ραþτο, Osset. rast, Tārī rāšt, cf. Lat. rectus, Arab. رصد /raṣd/).

st < *dt

hambast ‘collapsed’ < *ham-pad-tá-, cf. hambah-: hambast.

hambōy-: hambust ‘to smell; kiss’ < *ham-bau̯d-ai̯a-: *ham-bud-ta- (Av. baoδa-/ G baoda- pres., baoδaya- caus. pres., °busta- ppp., a-hąm.baoδǝmna- adj., Parth. ambōy- ‘to kiss’, Khot. haṃbus- inch. ‘to agree, be fit’, Armen. hamburel ‘to kiss’, hamboyr ‘kiss, embrace’, Pers. بوس- ، انبوییدن inch. ‘to kiss’ < *bau̯sa-).

3.17.7. s: h

hanz- (also henz-): hixt/ haxt ‘to draw (water); pull out; weigh’, sanz-: saxt ‘to weigh, measure’ (cf. also Pers. kiš- ‘to draw; weigh’) < *θanj-ai̯a-: *θaxta- (Av. θaṇj ‘to draw, stretch’, θaṇjaya- pres., θaxta- ppp., Parth. °henj-, Khot. thaṃj-: thīya- ‘to pull’, also thīs-, Sogd. δync /θinj-/ ‘to pull out, extract’ > Pers. لنجیدن , Šīrāzī tanz-, Pers. -هنج, also سنجیدن),

cf. āhanz-, frahanz-, nihanz-.

nas-: nast ‘to perish, be destroyed, lose’ < *nasi̯a-: *našta- (OPers. vi-nasta-, Av. nas-ya- pres., našta- ppp., apa-našta-, Skt. naś, náśyati, vínaśyati, naṣṭá-, vínaṣṭa-, Parth. fra-našt-ag, Sogd. nǝš-: ništ, Bactr. ναþτο, Waxī nis-: nōst ‘to lose’),

vinast(ag) ‘spoilt’ < *u̯i-nasta-ka- (Parth. vinašt- pret. stem ‘to do harm’),

nās-: nāst ‘to spoil, destroy, ruin, tear down’ < *nās-ai̯a- < *nāć-ái̯a- (OPers. °nāθaya- caus. pres., Skt. nāśáyati, Parth. nās- ‘to ruin, tear down’, nās ‘ruin’, Sogd. nēš-, Tokh. A nāk-),

abnas- ‘to lose, be lost, perish’ < *apa-nasi̯a- (Parth. abnas-, Sogd. panǝš-, Khot. panaś-),

abnās- ‘to annihilate, wipe out’ < *apa-nāsai̯a- (Parth. abnās-),

vināh-: vināst ‘to do harm, do wrong, spoil; corrupt; sin’ < *u̯i-nāθai̯a- (OPers. vi-nāθ-aya- pres.),

vināh ‘harm; sin’ (Parth. vinās, Pālī vināsa- ‘destruction’, Armen. vnas ‘wrong, damage, injury, detriment, loss, lesion’, Sogd. nās- ‘ruin’, fǝnās, Arab. جناه , Pers. گناه).

3.17.8. There is a sporadic interchange of s and z:

asprēs ‘racecourse; hippodrome’, also asprēz < *aspa- + *u̯rai̯ća- (Armen. asparēs ‘career; stadium, hippodrome, horse-race’, cf. F 9 urvaēsō: asprēs).

ēsm/ ēzm ‘firewood’ < *ai̯zma- < *ai̯dhsma- (Av. aēsma- m., Skt. idhmá- m., Sogd. ǝzm, Khwar. ʾzm, Yaγ. izim, Munj. īzmō, Pers. هیزم).

kenīzag ‘little girl, maiden; maid-servant’ < *kanii̯acaka- (Parth. kanīžag, Pers. کنیسه, کنیزک).

lēs-/ lēz-: lišt ‘to lick’ < *rai̯z-a- (Av. riz, raērizaite, Skt. reh, réḍhi, rihaté, rīḍha-, Khot. rrīys-, rīśtä, Sogd. rēs-, Yaγ. lēs-: lésta, Armen. lizem, lizanem, cf. also the Armenian legend of Ara-lezkʿ).

3.17.9. Gemination:

hassār ‘equal, alike, uniform’ < *hama-sāra- (Parth. hāvsār, Armen. hawasar adj. ‘equal’, s. ‘copy, duplicate’),

hassārag (Parth. hāvsārag, Armen. hasarak ‘common, ordinary, customary’).

hassāz-: hassāxt ‘to make ready’ < *ham-sāc-ai̯a- < *ćāc-ái̯a- (Av. sācaya- caus. pres., Sogd. ansāc-: ansaγd-).

pessāz-: pessāxt ‘to compose, constitute, make up, fashion’ < *pati-sāc-ai̯a- (Parth. passāž-, Sogd. pǝtsāc-: pǝtsaγδ > Pers. بسغدیدن , Paz. pasāž-).

pessann- (also, pessenn-) ‘to approve, consent; be pleased with; admire; like’ < *pati-sand-a- < *(s)ćand-a- (OPers. θadaya- pres., Av. saδaya- pres., sǝṇdaya- caus. pres., Skt. chadáyati, chándati, Parth. passend-, Khot. pasad-: pasasta- ‘to seem good’, Sogd. pǝtsend-, Bact. πησινδ-, Paz. pasaṇd-).

3.17.10.

asēm/ sēm ‘silver’ comes from Gr. ἀσῆμι (ἄσημον). The Old Persian word for silver was ardata- nt. (Av. ǝrǝzata- nt., Skt. rajatá- nt., Khot. āljsata-, cf. Armen. arçatʿ, Lat. argentum, cf. also OPers. siyamam ‘of silver’).

§ 3.18. h

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic h:

hēzag ‘bucket’; vahān ‘cause’; tah ‘bottom’, vēhm ‘broad’.

3.18.1. The fricative h comes from h < s in word-initial and word-internal and word-final position.

h-: būd ‘to be’ < *ah < *h1es-, ast ‘is’ < *asti (OPers. ahmiy, astiy, hantiy, Av. ah, ahmĭ, asti, hǝṇtĭ, Skt. as, ásti, sánti, Parth. ah-/ h-, ast, Khot. ah-: väta, aśtä, Sogd. ast/ ǝsti, xǝci, xand, Yaγ. xast, Pers. است/هست , اند، ام ).

hād ‘chapter’ < *hāti- (Av. hāiti- f. , Pers. ها ).

hadiš ‘(spiritual) residence’ < *hadiš- (OPers. hadiš- nt. ‘royal residence’, Av. hadiš- nt. ‘seat’, name of a deity, cf. Vr 1.9 hadišaheca: hadiš [mēnōg xānag], Skt. sáda- nt. ‘seat, residence’).

hambār ‘warehouse, storehouse, depot; hoarding’ < *ham-bāra- (Parth. ambār, ambārag, Armen. hambar, hambarak, Arab. أنبار ).

hāmhirz ‘adjutant, guardsman, aide-de-camp, bodyguard’ < *ham-hṛza- (Parth. hāmhirz, Armen. hamaharz, hamharz).

hamĭn/ hāmĭn ‘summer’ < *hāmīna- (Av. ham- m. ‘summer’, hąmina- adj. ‘of the summer, summerly’, nt. ‘summer’, Sogd. āmīnē ‘summer’, Khot. hamāna- ‘id.’, Kurd. K hāwín, S hāmín, Jīruft xomin, Pers. همین , cf. Skt. sámā- f. ‘year, season’).

han ‘old (attaining the age of fifty)’ < *hana- (Av. hana- adj., Skt. sána- adj., Armen. hin ‘old, used, ancient’, Pašt. anā ‘grandmother’, Av. hanā- f. ‘old woman’).

hāvan < *hāu̯an-a- ‘mortar’, *hāu̯an-i- ‘related to the Haoma liturgy’ (Av. hāvana- m. dual ‘pestle and mortar’, havana- ‘the act of pressing the Haoma-juice’, hāvani adj., Skt. sávana- ‘Soma pressing’),

hāvan gāh name of a watch of the day,

hāvan-dastag ‘pestle’.

hāvand (also hāvend) ‘like, similar, same’ < *hāu̯ant- (Av. havaṇt-, Bactr. ωνδο, Paz. haβaṇd).

hun- ‘to press out, extract, squeeze out’ < *hun-a- (Av. hu, hunao- pres. < *su-neu̯-, hunu- pres. < *su-nu-, huta- ppp., Skt. sunóti, sutá-).

hun-: hūd ‘to beget (daēvic), bring forth’ < *hun-a- (Av. hunā- pres., Skt. sūta- verbal adj.),

cf. višūdag/ guhūdag.

hunušak ‘spawn, evil progeny’ (Av. hunu- m. ‘son’, hunuš nom. sg., Skt. sūnú- m. ‘son’).

māh ‘moon, month’ (OPers. māh-, Av. māh- m., måŋha- m., Skt. mā́s- m., Sogd. māx , Khot. māstä, Šuγ. mǟst, Osset. I mæj, D mæjæ, Tab. māng, Pers. ماه, مه).

3.18.2. h < *θ

āhr ‘fear, dread, terror’ < *āθri- (cf. Av. āiθi- f. ‘terror’, āiθivaṇt- ‘terrible’, Armen. ah ‘fear, dread, terror, apprehension’, ahagin ‘frightful, terrible, tremendous’).

dēbahr ‘anger, wrath’ < *dai̯paθra-, dēbišn ‘id.’ < *dai̯pašna-, also dēbist (cf. Armen. dipah ‘apprehension; place of detention’).

²gāh ‘metrical line, verse-line; song’ (Av. gāθā- f. ‘strophic form, a group of hymns of the same strophic form; hymn’, Skt. gā́thā- f. ‘song; verse, stanza; metre’).

gēh ‘living being; herd; property’ < *gai̯θā-, gēhān pl. ‘world (of the living beings); possessions, property’ < *gai̯θānaam (OPers. gaiθā-, Av. gaēθā- f., gaēθanąm gen. pl., Paz. gə̄hą, Pers. جهان),

hamgēh (also hamgēhānīg) ‘partner’ (Av. haδō.gaēθā-, Parth. hāmgēh, Khwar. angēθ, Sogd. anγēθ).

gāhbed ‘overseer of treasures, banker’ < *gai̯θā-pati- (Arab. جهباذ , جهبذ ).

grah (also grih) ‘knot’ < *granθ-i- (cf. Skt. granthí- m. ‘knot’, grantha- m. ‘tying, stringing together’, Khot. grantha-, Bal. garanč).

mahr/ mār (also mānsr) ‘(sacred) formula; (short) hymn’ < *mánθra (Av. mąθra- m., Skt. mántra- m., Parth. mār°, Sogd. mār°, Armen. mar°, Waxī mutr ‘augury’, cf. Pašt. maraī ‘charm’).

mŭhr ‘urine’ < *mūθra- (Av. muθra-/ G mūθra- nt., Skt. mū́tra- nt.).

nahang ‘province, district’ < *ni-θanga- (Bactr. ναυαγγο, Armen. nahang ‘state, province, country’).

rah ‘chariot, car, carriage’ < *raθa- (Av. raθa- m. ‘chariot’, raiθya- m., Skt. rátha- m., rathyà- adj. ‘belonging to a chariot’, m. ‘chariot-horse’, Parth. reh, Khot. rraha-),

rāh ‘road, way; journey’ < *rāθa- (Sogd. rāθ, Bactr. ραυο°, Yaγ. rōs/ rōt, Pašt. lyār/ lār, Orm. râī, cf. Skt. rathyā- f. ‘carriage-road, street’),

hamrāh ‘accompanying, fellow traveller, companion’ ≈ hampand (Bactr. ωραο, ωραυο),

rāhdār 1. ‘guardian of the road’ (Arab. رهدار ), 2. ‘highwayman, brigand’ (cf. Pers. راهبان ‘road-guard; robber’, Sogd. rāθpān ‘robber’, Bactr. ραυοβαναο ‘robbery’),

rāhnāmag ‘road-book’ (Arab. رهنامج ),

rāhnimāy , also rāhnimūdār ‘guide’.

zahm/ zaxm (written ztm) < *ǰaθma- (Parth. žahm, žaxm, Bactr. ζαχμο, Pers. زخم).

h <*θβ < **tu̯*

cahār ‘four’ < *caθu̯ārah (Av. caθβar-/ catur-, caθβārō nom. m., Skt. catvā́raḥ, Parth. cafār, Bactr. σοφαρο, Khot. tcohaurä, Osset. I cyppar, D cuppar, Bal. cār, Paz. cihār).

-īh < *-ii̯a-θu̯a- (Parth. -īft):

mardīh ‘manliness’ < mart-ii̯aθu̯a- (Parth. mardīft),

nēvīh ‘bravery, courage’ < nai̯b-ii̯aθu̯a- (Parth. nēvīft),

pedīxīh ‘satisfaction, refreshment, welfare, well-being’ < patii̯-ahu̯-ii̯a-θu̯a-.

hēr < **ēhr* < **ai̯θr*

hērbed (also ēhrbed) ‘teaching priest, teacher’ < *ai̯θra-pati- lit. ‘chief of the school (*ai̯θra- ‘school, doctrine’)’ (Av. aēθrapaiti- m., Skt.-Pārsī ervada, Arab. هربذ , Paz. ə̄rβat̰, ə̄ravat̰, cf. Aram. H 83 hrrpṭʾ).

There is a vacillation between s < OPers. ç (Sogd. š) and hr < Med. θr:

pās ‘watch-post, guard’ < *pāça- (Paz. pāš, Pers. پاس ), also păhr ‘watch-post, guard (house); watch, hour’ < *pāθra- (Av. pāθra- nt., Sogd. pāθr, pārθ, pāš ‘watch, service, respect’, pāšē ‘guardian’, Parth. pahe, Armen. parh, pah ‘guard, sentry; watch, hour, moment, post’, Pers. بهر، پهره).

pus ‘son’ < *puça-, puhr/ pūr < *puθra- (OPers. puça- m., Av. puθra- m., Skt. putrá-, Parth. puhr, Khot. pūra-, Bactr. πορο, πουρο, Sogd. pǝšē, Par. puš, Pers. پسر، پور).

si, sē, Parth. hri/ hrē ‘three’ < *çai̯-ah < *θrăi̯-ah (Av. θrāyō, θrayas°, Skt. tráy-, Bactr. υαρηιο, Khot. drai, Sogd. šē, Par. šī, cf. Av. θritya- adj. third’, OPers. çitīya-, Sogd. šitīk),

Pers. sisad, sē-sad (also tirēst/ tilēst), Parth. hrisaδ ‘three hundred’ (Av. θrāyō sata, tišrō sata, θrisata, Skt. triśatám, Paštō tēr sū).

h may represent OPers. θ < *s:

dah ‘ten’ < OPers. *daθa < *dasa (Av. dasă, Skt. dáśa, Lat. decem).

pādifrāh ‘punishment, requital, chastisement’ < *pāti-frāsa- (Parth. pādifrās, Armen. patuhas ‘scourge, plague, chastisement, correction’, Paz. pādafrāh, cf. Sogd. aṁfrāsē).

h may represent OPers. θ < *t:

cāh ‘well, pit’ < *cāθ-a- (Av. cāt-, Av. cāiti loc. sg. ‘in a well’, Khot. tcāta- ‘pool, lake’, Sogd. cāt, Osset. I cad, D cadæ ‘lake’, Bal. cāθ ‘well’, cā, Khowar čhat, čat, Pers. چال, چاه).

¹gāh ‘place; seat, throne; court; position; couch; status’ < *gāθu- (OPers. gāθu- m. ‘place, throne’, Av. gātu- m. ‘way, road; place, room, seat’, Skt. gātú- m. ‘way, course’).

hī may represent OPers. θii̯:

māhīg ‘fish’ < *māθii̯a-ka- < *matsi̯á- (Av. masya- m., Skt. mátsya- ‘fish’, Parth. māsīg, Kurd. ماسی , Yaγ. mōhī, Šuγ. māye, Pers. ماهی ).

tuhīg ‘empty’ < *tuθii̯a-ka- < *tussi̯á- (Skt. tucchyá- ‘empty, vain, trifling’, Parth. tusīg < *tusii̯a-ka-, Khot. tuśśa-, Paz. θihī, Pers. تهی).

vahīg ‘kid, buck; Capricorn’ < *u̯aθii̯a-ka- < *u̯ats-á- (Skt. vatsá- m. ‘calf, young of an animal’, Khot. basaka- ‘calf’, Par. γasȫ, Osset. D wæs ‘calf’, Orm. γwac, Bal. gvask ‘calf’, gvac ‘buffalo-calf’, Baxt. bīg ‘young he-goat’, Bīdhindī vehī ‘kid’).

3.18.3. h < *d

dah- (also day-): dād ‘to give, allot; donate; put; create’ < *dadā-: *dāta- (OPers. dā, dadā-, Av. dā, dad-/ daδā-/ G dadā- pres., dāta- ppp., Skt. dádāti, dádhāti, Parth. dah-: dād, Bactr. λα, λαυ-: λαδο, Osset. dæddyn, Sarīk. δo-: δud, Yazγ. day-: δed, Šuγ. δāδ-, Bal. dē-aγ: dāt, Paz. dah-: dāt̰).

nih- ‘to put, lay down, place, deposit, posit; bequeath; invent’ <*ni-d(ā)- aor. (Av. ni-dā, Skt. ni-dhā).

nihān, niyān ‘container, receptacle; hiding, concealment; clothing’ < *ni-dāni-, adj. ‘hidden, concealed, occult, un-manifested’ < *ni-dāna- (Paz. nihą),

ped nihān ‘in secret’ (Pers. پنهان).

rah-: rast ‘to escape, be delivered’ < *rada- < *raz-a- (OPers. rad, avarada- ‘to leave, relinquish’, Skt. rahati ‘to part; leave, quit’, rahita- adj.).

spāh ‘army’ < *spāda- (OPers. °spāda-, Av. spāδa-/ G spāda- m., Sogd. ǝspāδ).

xvēh-: xvist ‘to pursue’ < *hu̯ai̯dai̯a-: *hu̯id-ta-.

zrāh (also zrāy, zreh) ‘(mail) armour, coat of mail’ < *zrāda- (Av. zrāδa- m., Armen. zrah ‘cuirass; armature; coat of mail; breastplate’, Pers. زره , cf. Arab. درع ).

h < intervocalic d/ δ < *z:

brāh (also bray) ‘splendour, glare; beauty; radius’ < *brādah- < *brāzah- (Av. brāz- f. ‘sparkle’, brāza- adj. ‘gleaming, beaming’, Skt. bhrā́j- f. ‘lustre, splendour’, bhrājá- adj. ‘radiant, sparkling’, bhrā́jas- nt. ‘sparkle, glitter’, Paz. brih, Pers. براز ‘beauty, grace, elegance’), cf. brāz- ‘to shine, gleam, glitter’ < *brāz-a-.

xvāh- (also xvāy-): xvāst ‘to want, seek, wish’ < *hu̯ādai̯a-: *hu̯āsta- < *hu̯āzai̯a-: *hu̯āšta- (Parth. vxāz-: vxāšt).

3.18.4. h < *f

dahan ‘mouth’ < *dafan- (Av. zafan/ r- nt., Paz. dahąn < *dahān-am).

kahvan ‘old, obsolete, ancient’ < *kaf-u̯an-a- (Parth. kafvan).

kulāh ‘hat’ < *kurdu̯a-afi̯a- (Pers. کلاه).

3.18.5. h < *g

Ahmadān top. ‘Ecbatana’ (OPers. hangmatāna-, Armen. ahmatān, ahmadan, Pers.همدان ).

brahnag ‘naked, bare; without equipment’ is the result of the merging of *baha- ‘barefoot’ and *nagna- ‘naked’ with *-ka- (Av. maγna- adj. ‘naked’, Skt. nagná-, Khot. būnaa-, Sogd. βǝγnāk, βǝγnē, Khwar. βaγnǝk, Osset. bæğnæg, Paz. brahanaa, Pers. برهنه).

cirāh ‘lamp, light’ < *cirāgu- (Parth. cirāγ, Sogd. cirāγ, Pers. چراغ).

sprahm (also spram) ‘flower, aromatic herb’ < *spragma- (Sogd. ǝspǝrγǝm, Waxī spraγ, Pers. اسپرهم , اسپرم , اسپرغم اسپرخمها pl., Paz. sparham, cf. Av. frasparǝγa- m. ‘blossom’),

šāhsprahm ‘basil’ (Armen. šahaspram ‘sweet basil’).

3.18.6. h < *s

karbāh (also karbās) ‘lizard’ < *karpāsa- (Sogd. kǝrpǝsē, Yaγ. kalpasa, Khwar. karbāsik, Sangl. kǝrvišik, Šuγ. čirbǟsk/ čilbǟsk ‘lizard’, Yazg. čälbāsk ‘frog’, Pers. کربس , کرباسو , کربشه, کرباشه, چلباسه), cf. karbōg.

3.18.7. h < *t before p and k:

pehikar ‘picture, painting, image, statue’ < *pati-kara- (OPers. pati-kara- m., Parth. padkar, Armen. patker ‘picture; likeness, figure; painting; image, icon, portrait, effigy, form’, Aram. פְתַּכְרָּא ‘statue, sculpture, image’, Arab. فتکر ‘idol’, Pers. پیکر).

pehikān ‘arrowhead’ < *pati-kān-a- (Armen. patkan, patkandaran ‘case for arrows, quiver’, Pers. پیکان).

pehikār- ‘to contend (with), dispute (with), litigate, requite’ < *pati-kār-ai̯a- (Parth. padkār-),

pehikār ‘disputation, controversy, verbal duel’ < *pati-kār-a- (Parth. padkār, Paz. patkār, Pers. پیکار).

pehipurs- (also pehiburs-) ‘to read’ < *paiti-pṛsa- pres. (OPers. pati-pṛsa- pres. ‘to read’, pati-fraθiya- ‘to be read’, Av. paiti-pǝrǝsa- pres., °frasa- pres., Parth. padfurs-, Sogd. pǝtfas-).

3.18.8. h alternating with s:

xrōh-: xrust/ xrušt ‘to call, cry, make noise’ < *xrau̯sa-: *xrušta- (Av. °xraosa-, xraosyā- pres., °xrušta-, Skt. kroś, króśati, kruṣṭa-, Parth. xrōs-: xrušt, Khot. grūs-: ggurṣṭa-, Pers. ),

xrōh/ xrōs ‘call, cry; cock’ < *xrau̯sa- (Parth. xrōs ‘call’, Pers. خروه, خروس ‘cock’, خروش ‘clamour, cry’),

xrōhag renders Av. xraosya- m.-nt. ‘cry, howl, clamour’ (Parth. xrōsag ‘caller’).

3.18.9. h < *u̯

nesāh (also nasā, nasuš) ‘corpse; carrion’ < *nasāu̯am (Av. nasu- m.-f., nasāum acc. sg., nasāvō nom. pl., Parth. nasāv/ nesāv).

syāh (also syā) ‘dark, black’ < *si̯ā-u̯a- (Av. syāva- adj., Skt. śyāvá- adj., Parth. syāv, Pers. سیاه).

3.18.10. Clusters

Final cluster hk:

bišehk ‘doctor, physician’ < *bišaz-ka.

namehk ‘salt’ < *namadka- (Parth. nameδk).

Clusters hl, hr:

tahl/ taxl ‘bitter’ < *taxra- (Parth. taxl, Paz. tahal, Pers. تلخ, cf. Skt. takra- nt.).

xvahl/ xvahr ‘crooked, bent, twisted, untrue, false; curly’ < *hu-u̯axra- (Pers. خوهل), cf. vaxr.

hl, hr < rθ, rt

ahlav (also ardā, ašō, ahlā) ‘righteous, saint’ < *artau̯an- <*ṛtā́u̯ăn- (OPers. ṛtāvā, Av. aṣavan-, Skt. ṛtā́văn-/ ṛtā́vn-, Paz. aṣō).

fravahr (also fravard) ‘model soul; choice; air’ < *fra-u̯árti- lit. ‘choice’ (OPers. fravarti- f., Av. fravaṣi- f., Paz. fravaš).

puhl ‘bridge, ford’ < *pṛθu- < *pṛtu- (Av. pǝrǝtu-/ pǝṣu- m., pǝrǝθβō acc. pl., Gīl. purd, purt, Kurd. purd, Zaz. pırd, Bal. puhal, Pers.پل ).

tanābuhl/ tanābuhr ‘a degree of sin’ from tan < *tanū- ‘body; person’ and puhl < *pṛta- ‘forfeit, fined’ (Av. pǝṣō.tanū- adj. ‘of forfeited body’, tanu.pǝrǝθa- adj. ‘id.’, Pers. تنافور).

Vahrām < Varhrān < *u̯ṛθragna- (Av. vǝrǝθraγna-, Armen. vahagn).

hr may represent Med. θr < *tr rather OPers. ç:

cihr ‘seed; nature; form; face’ < *ciθra- (OPers. ciça-, Av. ciθra- adj., nt., Skt. citrá- adj. ‘visible’, nt., Parth. šihr > Arab. , شهرزاد - , Paz. cihar, Pers.چهر ).

mihr ‘contract; Mithra’ < *miθra- (Elam. mi-iš-šá < OPers. miça-, also miθra-, Av. miθra- m. ‘contract; Yazata of contract’, Skt. mitrá- m., Sogd. miš),

Mihrdād pr. n. < *miθra-dāta- (Elam. mi-iš-da-ud-da < *miça-dāta, Gr. μιθριδάτης).

šahr ‘kingdom; country’ < *xšaθra-, xšaθrahi̯a (Av. xšaθra -, OPers. xšaça-, Parth. xšahr, Paz. šahar).

xvāhr (also xvār) ‘easy; well-being, comfort’ < *hu̯āθra- (Av. xvāθra- nt.).

d/ δ* before r may become h (and not y):

muhr ‘seal, signet-ring, stamp’ < *mudrā- (Skt. mudrā́- f., Khot. mūra- ‘jewel; coin’, Bactr. μολρο, Arab. مهر /mahara/ ‘to seal’),

muhrag ‘seal; sealed document; piece (of the backgammon), draughtsman’ < *mudra-ka- (Khot. mūraka ‘seal’, Bactr. μολρογο/ μολραγο, Armen. murhak ‘note; bill; contract, bond’, Arab. مهرق , Pers.مهره , cf. Sogd. miδr, mužē ‘pearl’, Yaγ. mirda ‘bead, pearl’).

šuhr ‘liquid; semen’ < *xšudra- (Av. xšudra-, xšuδra- nt., Paz. šuθur).

The word bahr:

bahr ‘part, portion, lot; (legal) share; reason’ < 1. *baxθra- < *bhaktra-, 2. *badra- < *bheHd (Av. baxǝδra- nt., °baδra- adj. ‘fortunate’, hubaδra- adj. rendered by hubahr, Skt. bhadrá- adj. ‘fortunate, gracious’, súbhadra-, Paz. bahar, Pers. بهره, برخ, cf. Skt. bhaktá- nt. ‘share, portion’),

bahrag

Cluster hm:

tahm/ taxm ‘robust, firm’ < *taxma- (OPers. °taxma-, taxma°, Av. taxma- adj.).

tōhm/ tōxm ‘seed; semen; family; race’ < *tau̯xman- (OPers. taumā- f., Av. taoxman- nt., Parth. tōxm, Armen. tohm ‘family, extraction, race, tribe, lineage, house, clan’, cf. Skt. toká-m nt. ‘offspring, race’, tókman- nt. ‘young blade of corn’, tokma- m. ‘young shoot’).

vēhm ‘broad’ < *u̯ai̯g-ma- (Parth. vēhm).

hm < *zm

brahm ‘(outward) form; costume, habit; manner; raiment’ < *brazman-.

urvāhm ‘joyful’, s. ‘joy, gladdening, bliss’ < *uru̯āzman-, *uru̯āzma,

urvāhman ‘id.’ < *uru̯āzmanah, *uru̯āzmanahi̯a (Av. urvāzǝman- nt., urvāzā- f.).

Cluster hn:

drahnāy/ dranāy ‘length; duration’ comes from *darg°, imitating the form pahnāy.

Cluster hv:

kahvan ‘old, obsolete, ancient’ < *kah-u̯an-a- (Parth. kafvan).

Cluster hy:

hyōn/ xyōn (Av. x́yaona- name of a people, cf. Sogd. γwn/ xwn),

kirmir hyōn (Gr. κερμιχίωνες, cf. Skt. hāra-hūṇa).

3.18.11. h: x

harg, xarg ‘tax’ (Khot. harga- ‘tax’, Bactr. υαργο, Armen. hark, Georg. xarkʾ-i, Arab. خرج ), harāg ‘tribute, tax’ (Arab. خراج , cf. Aram. ḥalākā).

hērīg, xērīg bot. ‘wall-flower, Cheiranthus Cheiri’ (Pers. خیری).

hūg, xūg ‘pig’ < *hū-ka-.

huram, xuram ‘merry, happy, cheerful’ < *hu-rāman-.

hūz, xūz (OPers. u-va-ja /hūža-/ ‘Elam, Susiana’, hūžiya- ‘Elamite, Susianer’, Gr. Οὔξιοι, Σοὐζαῖοι, Armen. xužik, Arab. خوزي ),

Hūzestān, Xūzestān top. (Parth. Hūžestān, Armen. xužastan, cf. Arab. هوجستان واجار , سوق الاهواز ).

3.18.12. Sometimes, initial h is added before a vowel, or final h after a vowel:

hašt ‘eight’ = ašt.

zīh ‘(bow-)string, cord of an arrow, chord’ < zī < *jii̯ā- (Av. jyā- f., Skt. jyā́-, Bal. jīγ < *jii̯a-ka-, Pers. زه).

3.18.13.

halīlag bot. ‘myrobalan’ (Skt. harītaka- m. ‘Terminalia chebula’, Tokh. B arīrāk, Khot. halīrau, Arab. هليلج , Pers. هلیله).

Hrōm ‘Byzantium’ (Lat. Rōma top., Parth. Frōm, Sogd. βrʾwm /frōm/, Paz. arūm, cf. ŠKZ 4 hrōm: frōm: Ῥωμαίων ἀρχῆς).

§ 3.19. z

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic z:

zahg/ zāg ‘offspring, progeny, child’; vāzār ‘market’; gaz ‘tamarisk’, ruzd ‘greedy’.

z arises from various sources.

3.19.1. z < z < j [dz]

az ‘goat’ < *aza- < *aǵ-ó- (Av. aza- m., Skt. ajá- m. Tokh. A ās).

āz ‘greed, concupiscence; avidity’ < *āzi- (Av. āzi- m. f., Parth. āz, Paz. āž, cf. Skt. ājí- m. f. ‘fighting-match’).

āzār- ‘to torment, offend’ < *ā-zārai̯a- < *°j́ār-ái̯a- (Av. ā-zar, °zāraya- pres., Skt. hṛṇīte ‘is angry or wroth’, Sogd. āzēr-), also zārēn- ‘id.’

bazm ‘table, banquet’ < *bazma-,

bazmag ‘id.’ (Armen. bazmakan ‘invited person, table-companion, ἀνακείμενος; carpet, couch’),

bazmāvurd ‘a kind of sandwich’ (Arab. زماورد ).

diz ‘fortress, fort, castle’ < *dizā- (OPers. didā-, Bactr. λιζα, λιζο, Yid. lizo),

dizbed ‘commander of the fortress’ (Bactr. λιζοβιδο).

frazānag ‘wise, philosopher’ < *fra-zāna-ka- from zan- ‘to know’ (Parth. zān-, Pers. dān-) < *j́n-.

frazend ‘offspring, child, son’ < *fra-zanti- (Av. frazaiṇti- f., Bactr. φροζινδο, φορζινδο, cf. Lat. prōgnātus).

nēzag ‘spear’ < *nai̯za-ka- < *nei̯ǵ(h) (Av. naēza- nt., Bal. nēzaγ, Pers. نیزه).

niyāz ‘want, need, necessity’ < nii̯āza- (Sogd. nǝyāz, Bactr. νιιαζο, Tokh. AB ñās, N ñyās, Paz. nyāž).

pazd ‘pursuit, chase’ < *pazda(i̯a)ka-.

raz ‘vine, grape-vine; vine-tendril; vineyard’ < *razu- < *reǵ-u- (Bactr. ροζγο, Russ. Лоза, cf. Tārī raz ‘garden’),

razbān ‘the dresser or gardener of a vineyard’ < *raza-pāna- (cf. Arab. رضوان ‘the porter or gardener of paradise’,

razgar ‘vinemaker’ < *raza-kara- (cf. Elam. GIŠ.ra-za-qa-ra).

rāz ‘secret, mystery’ < *rāza- (Sogd. rāz, cf. Av. razah- nt., Skt. rahas- nt. ‘loneliness, secrecy’),

rāzgāh ‘place of initiating into mysteries, temple’ < *rāza-gāθu-.

rāz ‘building, edifice’ < *rāzah- (Aram. of Ḥaṭrā ʾrzʾ /ǝrāzā/, Paz. rāž).

razm ‘battle, fight, war’ < *raz-man- < *Hraj́-man-, *h3reǵ (Av. rasman- m., nt. ‘battle rank’, Paz. ražm).

kavārazm pr. n. < *kau̯a-Hraj́man- (Av. kavārasman- m.).

razŭr ‘forest, wood’ < *razura- (Av. razura-).

spazg (also espazg) ‘slanderous; slanderer’ < *spazga- (Av. spazga- adj., m., Pers. سپزگ/sǝpazg/), var. espagž is not genuine.

uzvān ‘tongue; language’ < *hizu̯ānam < *hiźu̯ān-am (OPers. h-z-a-n-m /hizānam/, Av. hizū- m., hizvā- f., hizvąm acc. sg., Skt. juhū́- f., jihvā́- f., Parth. ezβān, Sogd. ǝzβāk < *hiźu̯ā-ka-, Yaγn. zivāk, Khot. biśāa, Wakh. zik, Osset. ævzæg, Šuγ. ziv, Pašt. žǝba < *hiźu̯ā, Kum. zuwān, Zaz. ziwān, Kurd. zimān, Gil. zubōn, Paz. hizvą, Pers. زبان).

zamīg ‘earth, (piece of) land, ground, floor’ < *zamii̯aka- < *zam- (Av. zam- f., zå nom. sg., Skt. kṣám- f., kṣā́ḥ, Bactr. ζαμιγο, ζμιιο, Pašt. zmaka ‘earth, ground’, Bal. zamīk ‘id.’, Osset. æzmesæ ‘sand’, Pers. زمین , زمی , Paz. zamī, zamyą pl., also zamīn, cf. Lat. humus).

zanag ‘chin’ < secondarily thematised *zana-ka- < *zanu- < *ǵénu- (Av. zanava du., Skt. hánu- f. ‘jaw’, Khot. ysanuva ‘jawbone’, Parth. zanax ‘chin’, Pašt. zana ‘id.’, Šuγ. zingůn, Yaz. zang, Pers. زنخ , cf. Arab. ذقن ).

zanag ‘sort, kind’ < *zana-ka- (OPers. °zana-, vispa-zana- ‘of all kinds’, Skt. °janá-, Sogd. zǝng, Bactr. ζαγγο).

zand ‘district, county’ < *zantu- (Av. zaṇtu- m., huzə̄ṇtu- adj., Skt. jantú- m. ‘creature, lineage, people’).

zand (also zend) ‘explanation, commentary; meaning’ < *zanti- (Av. zaiṇti- f. ‘knowledge’).

zang ‘ankle, shank’ < *zanga- (Av. zaṇga- m. ahuric ‘ankle’, °zǝṇga-, but °zaṇgra- ‘id.’ daēvic, Skt. jáṅghā- f., Osset. I zæng, D zængæ ‘shin, shank, ankle’).

zār (also zāl) ‘gall, bile’ < *zāra- < *ǵhel° (Av. zāra- m., Gīl. zāl, cf. Khot. yȿāysa- ‘bile’, Gr. χόλος, χολή, Lat. fel).

zār (also zāl) ‘old’ < *zāra- (Av. zar ‘to grow old’, Skt. jar, Sogd. zrw, Pašt. zōṛ ‘old’, Pers. زال).

zard (also zerd) ‘yellow, tawny’ < *zárita- (Av. zairita-, Skt. hárita-, Khot. ysīḍai, Wax. zart, Šuγ. zīrd, Yid. zīt, cf. Armen. zartagoyn ‘saffron, crocus’),

zardag ‘yellow; yolk’ (Sogd. zértē, Yaγ. zērta, Osset. D zældæ ‘low herb, lawn’, Pers. زرده ‘yolk; gall’),

zardak bot. ‘safflower’ < *zarita-ka-ka- (Pers. زردک ‘carrot; safflower’).

zarīg ‘sorrow, regret’ < *zárii̯aka- (Parth. zarīg, Paz. zarī, Pers. دریغ).

zarmān ‘old age’ < *zarman-, *zarmān-am (Skt. jarimán- m., Paz. zarmąn), zarvān ‘id.’ < *zaru̯ān-am (Av. zaurvan- m., zaurvā- f. ‘old age, senility’, zaurura- adj. ‘decrepit, senile’, Sogd. zarv f. ‘old age’).

zāy-: zād ‘to bear (offspring), give birth to; generate’ < *zāi̯-ai̯a- tr., *zāi̯-a- intr. (Av. zan, zaya- pass. pres., zāta- ppp., Skt. jā́yate, jātá-, Khot. ysan-, Sogd. zǝn-: zāt),

zādag ‘born; infant; native’ < *zāta-ka- (Sogd. zātē, Bactr. ζαδο, ζαδαγο, Pers. زاده),

āzād ‘high-born, noble; free’ < *ā-zāta- (Av. āzāta- adj., Armen. azat ‘free, independent, redeemed’, Paz. āžāt̰).

zēn ‘weapon, armament; armour, arms’ < *zai̯na- (Av. zaēna- m., Sogd. zēn, cf. Skt. hetí-),

zay/ zē ‘weapon; instrument’ < *zai̯a- (Av. zaya- m.).

zēn ‘saddle; shoulder-belt (with a quiver)’ < *zai̯nu- < *j́ai̯nu- (Av. zaēnu- f., cf. Skt. jayanam nt. ‘equipment of a horse’).

zim ‘winter’ < *zima- < *ǵhim-o- (Av. zyam- m., zyå nom. sg., zyąm acc. sg., G zimō gen. sg., Skt. himá-, Bactr. ζιμγο < *zima-ka-, cf. Lat. hiems).

zin-: zīd ‘to deprive, carry off; damage’ (OPers. dinā- pres., dīta- ppp., Av. zinā- pres., Skt. jinā́ti, jītá-, Khot. ysän-, Sogd. zin-: zīt).

zōhr (also zōr) ‘libation, offering’ < *zau̯θră- < *j́au̯θră- (Av. zaoθrā- f. ‘offering’, zaoθra- nt. ‘offering; the function of a zaotar’, Skt. hotrá- nt., hótrā- f., Sogd. žōšē, Armen. zoh ‘victim, sacrifice’, Paz. zōr, cf. Elam. da-u-ša-um < OPers. *dauça-),

zōt ‘head-priest at an actual Yasna-ceremony’ < *zau̯tar- (Av. zaotar- m., Skt. hótar- m.).

zōr (also zāvar) ‘strength, (physical) capacity, force; army, host’ < *záu̯ar- (Av. zăvar- nt., zavarǝca, zāvarǝca, Parth. zāvar, Sogd. zāvǝr ‘strength’, zāvǝrkēn ‘strong’, Armen. zòr-k̕ ‘forces, troops’, zòrakan ‘soldierlike, strong, valorous’, s. ‘military man’, zòrabanak ‘corps d'armée’, Paz. zōr),

abzār ‘powerful, strong’ < *upa-zāu̯ar-a-,

nizār (also nizōr) ‘powerless, feeble, weak’ < *ni-zāu̯ar-a- (Parth. nizāvar),

hamzōr (also hāmzōr, hamāzōr) ‘united in strength; of the same force’ (Parth. henzāvar).

zrāh (also zrāy, zreh) ‘(mail) armour, coat of mail’ < *zrāda-.

zūd ‘quick, soon’ < *zūta- (Av. zavah- nt. ‘quickness’, zǝvištya- superl. ‘fastest’, Skt. jūtá- adj. ‘hurrying, rapid, quick’, javás- nt., Bal. zūt).

zūr ‘falsehood; deceit’ < *zūrah- (OPers. zūrah-, Av. zūrah-, Paz. zur, cf. Skt. hváras- nt. ‘crookedness, deceit’).

zurvān ‘time’ < *zru̯an-, *zru̯ānam < *gṛh2-u̯en- (Av. zrvan- m., zrvānǝm acc., zrū gen., Sogd. zarvā).

zyān ‘damage, loss, detriment’ < *zi̯ānV- (Av. zyāni-, zyānā- f., Skt. juyāní- f., Armen. zean)

3.19.2. z < j < ǰ

handōz-: handuxt ‘to stock, earn, amass; gain; hoard up’ < *ham-tau̯j-a(i̯a)- (Khot. hadaj-, Paz. haṇdōž-, Pers. اندوز-: اندوختن).

ōz ‘strength, power; corporeal vigor’ < *au̯jah- (Av. aojah-/ aogah- nt., aogō, aojaŋhā, Skt. ójas- nt., Paz. aoj, cf. Khot. oṇa-).

pērōz ‘victor’ < *parii̯- au̯jah- (Part. paryōž, Paz. pə̄rōž, cf. Gr. Περώζης).

ranz ‘labour, toil, trouble’ < *Hranj-a- (Parth. ranj, Paz. raṇj, Pers. رنج).

raz-: raxt ‘to colour, dye’ < *raj-a-: raxta- (Skt. raj, rajaya- caus., raktá-, Khwar. raxtak).

Spenzagr/ Spenzaruš (Av. spǝṇjaγri- m. ‘spattering prosperity’, name of a daēva adversary of the Vāzišta fire, spiṇjauruška- m. name of an enemy of Vīštāspa, Paz. spǝṇzagar).

spēz- (also espēz-): spixt ‘to sparkle; sprout; bloom’ < *spái̯j-a- or *spai̯j-ái̯a-: *spixta- (Khot. spätaa- ‘flower’).

stēz- (estēz-) ‘to quarrel’ < *stai̯j-a- (Parth. stēh-, Paz. stə̄ž-, Pers. ستیهیدن , cf. Av. stij- f. ‘fight’).

tōz-: tuxt ‘to pay for, repay, retaliate, expiate’ < *tau̯j-ai̯a- (Parth. tōž-, Bactr. τωζ-: τογδο, Armen. tuž-el ‘to fine, forfeit, indemnify’, Paz. θōž-: θōxt).

zad ‘gum, lac, resin’ < *jatu- (Skat. jatu- nt., Pašt. žāwla, Pers.ژد ),

angzad bot. ‘Asafoetida’ < angu-jatu- (Pers. انگژد , Armen. angužat, cf. Tokh. B aṅkwaṣt, Khot. aṁguṣḍa-, Skt. hiṅgu- m.),

angzadbar* (Armen. angužataber ‘silphium-bearing’).

zahr ‘poison, venom’ < *janθra- < *gu̯hṇ-tro- (Av. *jąθra-, Parth. žahr, Bactr. ζαυρο, Armen. žahr ‘venom, virus’, Kurd. žār, Yidγ. žaro, Khow. žār, Paz. zahar),

pādzahr (also pāzahr) ‘antidote, bezoar’ < *pāti-jaθra- ‘against poison’, pāti- is a vṛddhi of pati- (Sogd. pātžārē, Arab. بادزهر , بازهر , Paz. pādazahar).

zamān ‘time; hour; epoch, era; expiry date; horoscope; court session’ < *jamāna- (Parth. žamān, Sogd. žǝmǝnu, zǝmǝnu, Bactr. ζαμανο, Paz. zamą, jamąn),

zamānag ‘time, age’ < *jamāna-ka- (Armen. žamanak ‘time; century, period, era; death’, Pers.زمانه , Paz. jamąnaa).

zan-: zad ‘to beat, strike, smash, smite; play (an instrument)’ < *jan-a-: *jata- < *ǰhan (OPers. jan- pres., jantiy, Av. jan, jan- pres., jaiṇti, jata- ppp., Skt. hánti, hatá-, Parth. žan-, Khot. jsan-: jsata-, Sogd. žǝn-: žit, Bactr. ζιν-: ζιδο, Bal. jan-: jaθa-),

zad ‘smashed, struck’ < *jata- (Av. jata-).

zan ‘woman, wife’ < *jani- (Av. jaini-/ G jə̄ni- f., Skt. jáni- f., Parth. žan, Bactr. ζινο, Kurd. žin, Zaz. ǰinike < *jani-ka-, Paz. zani, cf. Armen. ǰnikan ‘[the royal] keeper of women’).

zastag ‘bride’ < *jasta-kā- < *jastā- (Av. °jasta- verbal adj., Khot. jista- ‘requested’, Bactr. ζιþτο ‘requested as a bride’),

zeyānag ‘young woman, bride’ < *jadi̯āna-kā- < *jadi̯ānā- (Paz. zyānaa), cf. zay-: zast ‘to seek, request’ < *jadi̯a- (OPers. jadiya- pres., Av. jaiδya- pres., °jasta- ppp.).

zīv-/ zī- ‘to live’ < *zīu̯a- < *jiH-u̯-a- (OPers. jīva-, Av. jva- pres., Skt. jī́vati, Khot. jū-/ juv-: juta-, Parth. žīv-, Sogd. žǝv-, Yaγ. žū-, Bact. ζοο-, Paz. zīβ-),

zīhr ‘life’ < *jī́u̯aθra- (Parth. žīvahr),

zīndag ‘living, alive’ < *jī́u̯ant-a-ka- (Paz. ziṇdaa).

3.19.3. z < *c

az ‘from, out of; among; since’ < *hacā (OPers. hacā, Av. haca/ G hacā, Skt. sácā, Parth. až, Khot. jsa, Bactr. ασο, ασα°, Bal. aš, Paz. až, ǝž).

dōz-: duxt ‘to sew, tailor; fix (one’s eyes)’ < *dau̯c-ai̯a-: *duxta- (Osset. I ævduzyn, D ævdozun ‘to sew buttonholes’, Bal. dōč-aγ ‘to sew’, Gīl dūtan).

hamōz-: hamuxt ‘to learn’ < *hamau̯c-a-: hamuxta-, ‘to teach, instruct’ < *hamau̯c-ai̯a- (Parth. āmōž-, Paz. āmōž-: āmōxt),

hamōg ‘teaching, doctrine; textbook’ < *hamau̯ka- (Parth. āmōg, Tokh. amok ‘art’).

handāz-: handāxt ‘to consider, plan, reckon; judge; take place, happen; cast, calculate (a horoscope); make, prepare’ < *ham-tāc-ai̯a- (Armen. andač-el ‘to reflect, meditate upon, consider’, Aram. hndz/ hnds ‘to measure, mark’, Paz. aṇdāž-: aṇdāxt),

handāzag adj. ‘similar, analogous’, subst. ‘comparison, analogy; geometry’ (Arab. هنداز ‘measure’, هندازه ‘a measure of length’, هندسة ‘engineering, geometry’).

hēz ‘drought’ < *hai̯cah- (Av. haēcah-).

miz- ‘to taste, suck; kiss’ < *mic-a- (Bal. miš-aγ ‘to suck’, Lur. mež-, Pers. مزیدن , cf. Av. maēkayaṇt-),

mizag ‘taste’ < *mica-ka- (Pers. ).

mōzag ‘shoe’ < *mau̯ca-ka- (Skt. moca- m., Armen. muč̣ak, Arab. موزج , Pers. موزه).

rēz-: rĭxt ‘to pour out, flow; shed’ < *rai̯c-ai̯a- (Bal. rēšaγ: rixta, Tārī rēj-: rit, Paz. rə̄ž-).

rōz ‘day’ < *rau̯cah- (OPers. raucah- nt., Av. raocah- nt., Parth. rōž, Bal. rōč, Zaz. rōǰ).

rōzan, also rōzin ‘window, (light) opening’ < *rau̯cana- (Av. raocana-/ raocina- adj. cf. Vd 2.30 dvarǝm raocanǝm ‘a door admitting light’, nt. cf. Vd 7.14 raocanǝm paiti nmānahe ‘at the window of the house’, Skt. rocaná- nt., Osset. I rūdzyng [or, rūƷyng], D rodzingæ ‘window; sacred bread’, Arab. روزن ‘dormer window; porthole’, روشن ‘window’).

saz- ‘to be fitting, be proper, be expedient’ < *sac-a- (Parth. saž-, Paz. saž-).

sōz-: suxt ‘to burn’ < *sau̯c-a- (Av. saoca- pres., °suxta- ppp., Skt. śócati, Parth. sōž-, Khot. sūjs-, Sogd. sōc-: suγd, Yaγ. sūč-: sūšta, Osset. I sūdzyn, D sodzun, Bal. suč-, soč-, Šīrāzī tuz-).

spōz- (also espōz-): spuxt ‘to thrust, repel, excrete; reject; postpone’ < *spau̯c-ai̯a-: *spuxta- (Armen. spuž-em ‘to postpone, defer’, Paz. spōž-),

spōz ‘delay’ < *spau̯ca-.

tazar ‘palace’ (OPers. tacara-, dacara-, Parth. tažar, Armen. tačar ‘temple; palace; τρίκλινον’, Pers. تجر , Arab. طزر ).

vizār- ‘to separate; perform; expose; compensate’ < *u̯i-car, *u̯i-cār-ai̯a- (Parth. vižār-, Paz. vazār-), vizār ‘separation; performance; compensation; solution’ < *u̯i-cār-a- (Armen. vč̣ar ‘payment, retribution, compensation, requital’).

3.19.4. z < *s + a voiced dental stop

mazg ‘marrow, brain’ < *mazga- < *mosgh-o- (Av. mazga- m., Skt. majján- m., Khot. mäjsā, Sogd. mǝγz, Osset. maγz, Bal. mažg, Lur. mazg, Pers. مغز, مزغ).

mizd ‘reward; wage’ < *mižda- < *misdhó- (Av. mižda-/ G mīžda- nt. ‘reward, fee, prize’, Skt. mīḍhá-, Parth. mužd, Khot. mäṣḍān(a)-, Osset. I myzd, D mizd, Paz. mazd, Pers. مزد /muzd/),

mizdag < *mižda-ka- (Parth. muždag, Pers. مژده),

mizdvar ‘hireling, wage earner’ < *mižda-bara- (Pers. مزدور).

myazd (also mīzd) ‘sacrificial repast, offering’ < *mii̯azda- < *mii̯as-dha- (Av. myazda- ‘food offering, the sacrificial solid food’, cf. Skt. miyédha- m. ‘sacrificial oblation’).

nazd ‘near, nearby’, adv. ‘about’ < *nazdii̯ah- comp. < *nasd° (Av. nazdyō comp. of asna- ‘near’/ OPers. ašna-, Skt. nédīyas- comp. ‘nearer’, Khot. naysda- ‘near’, Sogd. nǝzdu, Bactr. νοζδο).

ohrmazd < *ahura- mazdā- < *°mas-dhaH-.

3.19.5. z: d

bāzūg ‘arm’ < *bāzu-ka- also bʾdwky /bādūg/ or /bāyūg/ < *bādu-ka- (Av. bāzu- m., Skt. bāhú-, Pers. بازو، باهو).

zarr ‘gold’ < *zarna/u-, zárani̯a- (OPers. daraniya- nt., Av. zarańya- nt., Skt. híraṇya- nt., Parth. zarn), but dālmen or dālman ‘lammergeyer, eagle’ < *darnu-mani- (Av. zarǝnu.maini- adj. ‘lammergeyer’).

zimestān (also dimestān) ‘winter; year’ < *zimastāna- (Kumzārī dimēstān, Paz. damastąn).

zreh/ zrē (also drayā < *drai̯ah-) ‘sea’ < *zrai̯ah- < *źrai̯ah- (Av. zrayah-, Skt. jráyas-, Bal. زرا ‘river, sea, well’, Paz. zrih).

3.19.6. z: s

ēsm, ēzm ‘fire-wood’ < *ai̯zma- < *h2oi̯dh-smo- (Av. aēsma- m., Pers. هیزم).

frāzdar, frāstar comp. of frāz ‘in front, ahead, forth’ < *frācatara- (cf. KKZ 16 frāstar zamān ‘in the future’, Dk iii, M 166 pēš … nūn frāzdar ‘before … now … after’).

lēs-/ lēz-: lišt ‘to lick’ < *rai̯z-a- (Av. riz, Skt. reh/ leh, rihate, Khot. rīśtä, Sogd. rēs-, Yaγ. lēs-, Sangl. lēs-: let, Išk. lēs-: list, cf. Armen. ara-lēz-kʿ).

Pers -zn: Av. -sn-:

āzn ‘noble’ < *ā́zna- (Av. āsna- adj. ‘well-born’, Khot. āysña- ‘id.’, Armen. azn ‘people, nation’),

āznāvar ‘noble’ (Georg. aznaur ‘nobleman’).

gavazn z. ‘deer, elk’ < *gau̯ázna- < *gau-aź-na- (Av. gavasna- m., Khot. ggūysna-, Sogd. γăvazn).

Cf. also Parth. inscr. mzdyzny (Pers. mazdesn, Av. mazdayasna-).

3.19.7. z : ž

snēžag, snēzag ‘snow’ < *snai̯ža- (Av. snij, snaēža- pres. ‘to snow’, snaēžana- adj. ‘slavering, drooling’, snaēžiṇt- adj. ‘snowing’, Sogd. šnēš- ‘to snow’, Šuγ. žiniǰ m. ‘snow’, Yaz. zǝnaγ ‘id.’).

3.19.8.

The word āmurz- :

āmurz- ‘to have mercy, forgive’ < *ā-mṛžd-a- (Av. maržd, mǝrǝžda- pres., marždika- / G mǝrǝždika- nt. ‘mercy’, Skt. mṛḍá, mṛḍīká- nt., Parth. āmužd ‘mercy’, Khot. mulysdi ‘id.’).

The word azd:

azd ‘known, public’ < *adh-tā- (OPers. azdā, Av. azdā, Skt. addhā́ adv., Armen. azd).

The word azg:

azg ‘branch, twig, shoot’ < *azga- (Yazd. xazg, Waxī yazg ‘shoot, sprout’, Khwar. zγyk ‘horn’ < *azga-ka-, Pers. ازگ, ازغ, cf. Skt. ádga- m. ‘knot, stem’).

The word bazag :

bazag adj. ‘sinful, baneful, causing harm’, s. ‘evil, sin, crime’ < *bazda-ka- (Av. bazda- adj. ‘ill’, Khot. baśdā ‘evil, sin’, Sogd. βež ‘evil, bad’, βjyk < *bazdi̯a-kă-, Paz. bažaa, Pers. بزه ).

The word for ‘hedgehog’:

zuzag possibly from *ǰuǰakă- (cf. Av. dužaka- m., Skt. jáhakā- f., Bal. dužux, žūža, Pers. ژوژ، ژوژه).

3.19.9. Geminated zz:

hazzān ‘ossuary’ < *ast-dāna- (Aram. ʾstdnʾ, cf. also astōdān ‘ossuary, sepulchre’).

pezzaftag ‘dissolved’ < *pati-jam-ta-.

pezzām-: pezzāft ‘to ripen, mature; cause to ripen’ < *pati-jām-ai̯a-.

3.19.10.

zēt bot. ‘olive-tree, olive’ (Aram. זֵיתָּא ).

zīfān ‘false, wrong’ (Syr. ܐܢܦܐܙ).

§ 3.20. y

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic y:

yal ‘hero’;

āyēb ‘conflagration’;

gōy ‘ball’,

gayg (or, gayag) ‘robber’.

The sonorant *i̯ may be maintained inside a word, while y may also be the result of a sound change.

3.20.1. y < *i̯

drayā (also zreh < *zrai̯ah-) ‘sea; river’ < *drai̯ah- (OPers. drayah- nt., Waxī dǝryō ‘ great river’, Yaγ. daryō ‘id.’, Pers. دریا).

hōy ‘left’ < *hau̯i̯a- < *(H)seu̯-i̯o- (Av. haoya- adj., hāvaya-ca ‘with the left one’, Skt. savyá- adj. ‘left’, m. ‘left hand’).

niyābag ‘suitable, becoming, fitting’ < *nii̯āpaka- (Parth. niyāβag, Bactr. νιιαβγο, νιιαβογο, cf. Av. nyāpǝm).

tāy ‘thief’ < *tāi̯u- (Av. tāyu- m., Skt. tāyú- m., Sogd. tāy, Khwar. tāh).

In a number of words (especially loan words) the initial *y is maintained:

yān ‘favour’ from Av. yāna- nt. ‘a boon (that is requested from the Yazata), request’ (Skt. yā́na-, Sogd. yān ‘favour, wish’), cf. Dk iii, M 339 yān az yazdān, ābādīh az mardōm.

yasn from Av. yasna- m. ‘worship, ritual act, liturgy’ (Skt. yajñá- m.), also jašn ‘festival’ < *i̯ašna-.

yašt ‘ceremony, sacrificial text’ from Av. yašta-.

yaz-: yašt ‘to worship, consecrate, sacrifice’ < *i̯az-a- < *i̯aź-a- (OPers. yad, yada-, Av. yaza- pres., išta-, Skt. yájati, iṣṭá-),

yazd (also īzad < *i̯azáta-) < *i̯ázata- (Av. yazata- adj., Skt. yajatá- adj., Khot. gyasta-/ Tum. jezda-, Osset. izæd, Paz. yazad/t̰).

yōšdăhr (also yōždahr, yōšdāsr) ‘pure, holy’ comes from Av. yaoždāθra- nt. ‘state of purity, (ritual) purification’.

3.20.2. y < *d (intervocalic lenition)

āšyānag ‘nest, lair’ < *āšidāna-ka- < *had, *hida- ‘to sit’ (Parth. āhyānag, Šuγ. yēθ, Waxī yoθ).

āyēnag (also ēvēnag) ‘manner, form’ < *abi-dai̯(a)-na- (Khot. āyänaa ‘example, simile’, Khwar. βzynk ‘example’).

āyēnag ‘mirror; example; alter ego’ < *ā-dai̯(a)-na- (Parth. āδēnag, Sogd. āδēnē, Khot. āyäna-, Bal. ādēn/ ādēnk, Osset. I ajdæn, D ajdænæ, Khowar harēn, Paz. āinaa).

ārāy-: ārāst ‘to prepare, embellish, adorn; ordain; devise; equip’ < ā-rād-a- (or, abi-rād-a-): ārāsta- (Av. rād-a- pres. ‘to prepare’, rādah- nt. , Skt. rādh, rādhnóti, rāddhá-, Paz. ārā-).

bōy ‘consciousness, awareness, perception’ < *báudah- (Av. baoδah- nt. ‘perceptive faculty, awareness; intention’, baoδō.varšta- ‘intentionally made’, G baodaṇt- adj. ‘aware’, Skt. bodhá- m. ‘watch, waking, consciousness’, bodhi- m. f. ‘knowledge, wisdom’, Bal. bōδ ‘perception, feeling’, Paz. bōi).

bōy ‘scent, perfume; smell’ < *bau̯di- or *bau̯da- (Av. baoδa- m., baoiδi- f. ‘fragrance’, Parth. bōδ, Sogd. βōδ, Yaγ. vūd, Waxī vūl, Osset. I būd/ D bodæ ‘incense, perfume’, Bal. bōd/ bōδ ‘scented plant’, Armen. boyr ‘fragrance’, burvaṙ ‘altar of incense, θυμιατήριον’ < *bau̯di-bara-, cf. Av. barō.baoδa- adj. ‘bearing-fragrance’, Paz. bōi).

gay ‘thief, robber, bandit’ < *gada- (Av. gaδa-, Bactr. γαλο),

gayag (also gayōg, gēg) < *gada-ka- ‘robber; planet’ (Paz. gadū, gadūgą).

gōy ‘ball’ < *gau̯da- (Khot. gūla- ‘ball’, Pers. گوله , گوی).

hămōyēn ‘any kind (of); all, every’ < *hăm-abi-dai̯(a)na- (Armen. hamòrēn ‘whole, total, entire’, adv. ‘wholly, entirely’, Paz. hamōīn).

may ‘wine’ < *madu- (Av. maδu- nt. ‘intoxicant drink, wine’, Skt. mádhu- nt. ‘anything sweet especially if liquid; mead; honey’, Khot. mau ‘intoxicant drink, liquor’, Sogd. mǝδu ‘wine’, Osset. I myd, D mud ‘honey’, Tokh. B mālo, obl. māla ‘wine’, Pers. , , Paz. mae).

meyān ‘middle, centre; waist’ < *madi̯āna- (Av. G maidya- adj., maiδyāna- nt., Parth. maδyān, Khot. myānaa- ‘middle’, Sogd. miδān ‘middle, waist’, miδānī ‘among, amidst’, Bactr. μιλανο, Yaγ. bidōn ‘middle; waist’, Orm. biyān ‘the lower part of the back, waist’, Bal. niyām ‘middle’, niyāmā ‘in the middle’, cf. Pers. ببر بیان ).

năy ‘reed, pipe, drain; flute’ < *nada- (Av. naδa- m., Skt. naḍá-/ naḷá- m., Parth. naδ, nāδ, Munj. nǝl ‘reed’, cf. Hungarian nád ‘reed’),

also nāl ‘stalk’ (Skt. nāla- nt. ‘a hollow stalk’, Pašt. nāṛa, Wax. nālčik ‘pipe, tube’).

nivēy-: nivist ‘to announce; invite’ < *ni-u̯ai̯d-ai̯a- (Av. ni-vaēδaya- caus. pres., vista- ppp., Skt. ni-vedayati, vittá-, Parth. nivēδ-: nivist, Sogd. nǝvēδ-: nǝvist),

nivēy ‘tidings’ (Sogd. nǝvēδ, Armen. nuēr ‘oblation, present, offering, gift’),

nivēbed ‘master of invitations’ ≈ āyēnbed (Parth. nivēδbad, Armen. nuirapet).

niyām ‘sheath, scabbard, husk’ < *nidāman- (Parth. niδāmag).

niyān (also nihān) ‘container, receptacle; hiding’ < *ni-dāni- (cf. Elam. nu-da-nu-iš ‘warehouse’, Skt. nidhā́na- nt. ‘store, treasure’, nidhána- nt. ‘receptacle’).

pay ‘foot; step, footprint; station’ < *pad-a-,

pāy ‘foot’ < *pāda-m (OPers. pāda-, Av. pad- m., pāδǝm acc. sg., paδa-/ G pada- nt. ‘footprint, step’, Skt. pád- m., pā́da- m., pā́dam, padá- nt., Parth. pāδ, Sogd. pāδ, pāδīk ‘belonging to the foot’ > Pers. پالیک ‘leather shoes’, also دمپایی , Munj. pāla-, Yaγ. pōda, Khot. pāa, Šuγ. pōδ, Osset. fad ‘foot’, fæd ‘footprint’, Pašt. pal ‘footstep’, Bal. pad ‘footprint’, Paz. pāe),

payādag ‘pedestrian, foot-soldier; (chess) pawn’ < *padātaka- (Skt. padāti- adj. ‘going on foot’, m. ‘pedestrian, foot-soldier’, Khot. pātī, pāyai, Sogd. pǝδē, Arab. بيدق ‘pawn’, بيادق pl.),

pāybānag, pāyvāf ‘footwear, stocking, sock’ (Yazdī پوپل),

pābōš ‘slipper, babouche’ < pāy-pōš (Arab. بابوش , بابوج ).

pay, pey ‘sinews, tendons, nerves’ < *padii̯ā- (Av. paiδyā-, Khot. päyä, piye, Pašt. pala, Paz. pae, cf. Skt. pádiyā- f. pl.).

rāy ‘for, on account of; on behalf of; instead of’ < *rādi (OPers. rādiy ‘on account of’, Parth. rāδ, Khwar. δār, Pers. . Object marker: Bal. -rā (indirect or direct), Zaz. -rē/ -rā (indirect). Cf. OSl. radi ‘because of’).

rōy ‘copper, brass; zinc’ < *rau̯da- < *(H)rau̯dhá- (Skt. lohá- m. ‘reddish metal, copper’, Bal. rōd ‘copper’, Orm. rō ‘iron’, Armen. aroyr ‘brass, latten’, Pers.روی , روذ, cf. Av. raoiδita- adj. ‘red, coppery’, m. name of a mountain, cf. Skt. róhita-, lóhita-).

sabōy ‘jar, jug’ < *sapau̯da- (Parth. sabōδ, Bactr. σαβολο, Tokh. B sapule /sāpúle/ ‘pot’, Armen. sapʿor ‘pitcher, jar, amphora, urn’, Pers.سبو).

srāy ‘hall; abode’ < srāda- (Armen. srah ‘saloon, hall, parlour, drawing room; portico, court’, Pers. سراه, سرای),

srāyag (Parth. srāδag, Armen. srahak ‘small room; curtain, hangings, tapestry’, Mand. srʾdqʾ ‘tent-roof, curtain, pavilion’, Arab. سرادق 'tent cover, curtain, awning').

šahriyār ‘ruler, lord, king, commander’ < *xšaθra-dāra- (Parth. šahrδār, Bactr. þαροληρο, Paz. šaharyār, cf. ŠKZ 3 šahriyār: ḥštrdr: δεσπότας).

šōy-: šust ‘to wash’ < *xšau̯d-a(i̯a)-: *xšusta- (Av. xšusta- ppp. ‘melted’, Khot. kṣusti- ‘serum’, Parth. šōδ-, Bal. šuδ-aγ: šusta, Paz. šō-, Pers. شور-, شوی-).

ušyār (or, ušiyār) ‘intelligent, careful, heedful’ < *uši-dāra- (Paz. hōšyār).

vayūdag (also vayūg, bayūg) ‘bride, daughter-in-law’ < *u̯adu-u̯adaka- (Av. vaδū- f., vaδu nom. sg., Skt. vadhū́- f., Hindi bahū, Sogd. vǝδu, Khwar. wỹδ, Kurd. būk, Pašt. wal-war ‘bride-price’, Yid. wulo ‘wife’, Pers. بیوگ),

vayūdagān ‘wedding, nuptials’ (Kurd. būkēnī ‘bridal’, Pers. بیوگان).

y < d < t

pāyimār ‘official decree, edict, disposition’ < *pāti-māra- (Khot. patämar- ‘to inform, report’, patämara ‘report’, Paz. pādimāl, cf. Parth. pādihmār adj. ‘entrusted, appointed’, s. ‘obligation’).

payōs-: payust ‘to hope, expect, yearn’ < *pati-bau̯sa- inch. (Av. pati-bud ‘to expect’, Skt. práti budh, Parth. padβōs-, Pers. -بیوس ‘to hope, expect’, بیوس ‘hope, expectation’).

peygāl, peyāl ‘(drinking) cup’ < *pati-gāra- (Sogd. pǝtγāδ, Waxī pīl ‘wooden cup’, Yid. piloγo ‘id.’, Pers. پیال , پالغ, بالغ, cf. OPers. bātu-gara- a kind of vessel),

peyālag ‘id.’ (Pers. پیاله, پیغاله, Arab. فيالجه ),

peyālgar ‘cup-maker’.

peyrōg ‘illumination, luminosity, light’ < *pati-rau̯ka- (Pers. فروغ ).

y < d < z

rāyēn-: rāyēnīd caus. ‘to direct, organize, arrange; administer; perform’ < *rādai̯anai̯a- < *rāz-ai̯anai̯a- (Av. rāzaya- pres., rāšta- ppp., Skt. raj, Parth. rāz-: rāšt, Khot. rrays-, Osset. aræzyn, D aræzun, Paz. rāin-).

3.20.3. y < *g (intervocalic lenition)

bay ‘lord, god, sir, Majesty’ < *baga- (OPers. baga-, Av. baγa-/ G baga- m., Skt. bhága- m., Parth. baγ, Sogd. βǝγ, βǝγān, Paz. baγ, byąn, Pers. بغ , فغ).

hambāy ‘partner, confederate, associate’ < *ham(a)-bāga- (Parth. ambāγ, Paz. hambāe, Pers. انباغ ‘concubine’, cf. Khot. haṃbā ‘amount; share’), also hambāv ‘adversary’.

niyān (also nigān) ‘buried, treasure’ < *ni-kāna- (Parth. nigān, Khot. nyanaa-, Paz. nagą).

niyāy- ‘to pray, recite in a singing manner, sing’ < *ni-gāi̯a- or rather *ni-gāda(i̯a)- (Skt. ni-gā, nigāya-ti ‘to accompany with song, chant’, Parth. niγāy-: niγād, Parth. niγāδ ‘prayer’, cf. Sogd. nǝγāδā ‘prayer’),

niyāyišn ‘prayer’.

niyūš- (or, niyōš-): niyušt ‘to listen, hear; understand’ < *ni-gūša- (ni-gau̯ša-): *ni-gušta- (Av. gūšaya- caus. pres., °gušta-, Skt. ghóṣate, ghuṣṭa-, Parth. niγōš-, Sogd. nǝγōš: nǝγōšt, Bcatr. νιγαυ-, ναγαυ-: νιγατο, ναγατο, Bal. niγōš-aγ, nigōšag, Osset. I qūsyn, D iγosun, Paz. nyōxš-),

niyūšāg ‘hearer, auditor’ (Parth. niγōšāg, Sogd. nǝγōšāk, Pers. نغوشا , cf. OPers. *gaušaka- ‘hearer, contact man’ attested in the Aramaic papyri from Elephantine).

ray ‘swift, fast, rapid, fleet’ < *ragu- (Av. raγu- adj., rǝvī- f. < *raγu̯ī-, rao-raθa- adj. ‘with fast chariots’, Skt. raghú- adj., ravī́- f., Khot. rraysga-, Parth. raγ, Armen. erag ‘quick, speedy; nimble, prompt’, arag ‘fast, swift, rapid’).

zeryōn (also zergōn) ‘green, verdant’ < *zari-gau̯na- (Av. zairi.gaona- adj., Parth. zarγōn-ag, hu-zarγōn, Sogd. zǝrγōn, zǝrγōnē ‘greenish, vegetable’, Aram. zargōn ‘wine’, Arab. زرقون ‘zircon’, زرجون ‘vine stock; vine shoot; reddish, wine’, Pers. زریون).

3.20.4. y < *b

Gay top. < *gaba- (Parth. g’b, Arab. جی ).

stōy ‘harassment; defeated’ < *stau̯ba- (Parth. estōb, Pers. ستوه).

3.20.5. y < *u̯

pādixšāy ‘sovereign; authoritative; authorized’ < *pāti-xšā-u̯an- (Parth. pādixšān, Bactr. παδαχþανο, Paz. pādišāh, Pers. پادشاه).

tāy- (also tāv-) ‘to be able, endure’ < *tāu̯-ai̯a- (OPers. tū, tāvaya-, t-a-v-y-t-i-y, Av. tao- pres., Skt. tavīti),

pettāy-: pettūd ‘to endure, last, bear, remain’ < *pati-tāu̯-ai̯a- (Parth. pattāv-),

tāy ‘power, ability, means’ < *tāu̯a- (Sogd. tāv, Bactr. ταοι, ταοο),

tāyag ‘powerful, mighty; power, ability, means’ < *tāu̯a-ka- (OPers. tauviyah- ‘mightier’, Parth. tāvag).

udāy- ‘to help, aid, assist’ < *udāu̯ai̯a- < *uz-āu̯-ái̯a- (Av. ava- pres. ‘to help, assist’, Parth. ezāv-).

3.20.6. The word xayūg:

xayūg ‘slaiva, spittle’ < *hazdu-ka- (Sogd. γztwq /xǝzdūk/, Pers. خذو, خیو, cf. Skt. syédu- m.).

3.20.7. y: d

pādgōs, pāygōs ‘district, province’ < *pāti-kau̯sa- (Parth. pāδgōs, Armen. patgos, Paz. pāδkōs),

pādgōspān ‘district governor’ (Parth. inscr. ptykwspn, Armen. patgosapan, Arab. فاذوسبان ).

pādram, pāyram ‘the common, common people; public’ < *pāti-rama- (Pers.پادرم ).

3.20.8. y: g

āgōš, āyōš (written ʾdwšy, ʾʾwš) ‘embrace, armpit, bosom’ < *ā-gau̯ši- (Paz. āβōš, Pers. آغوش, آگوش).

3.20.9. y: h

abaxšāh-/ abaxšāy-: abaxšūd, abxšāyīd ‘to have mercy on, forgive; spare’ < *apa-xšād-ai̯a- (Parth. abaxšāh-, Paz. aβaxšā-, Pers. -بخشای, cf. Parth. axšad ‘mercy’, Bactr. αþχαλο ‘indulgence’).

dah-/ day-: dād ‘to give, allot; donate; put; create’ < *dadā-: *dāta- (OPers. dadā-, Av. dad-/ daδā-/ G dadā- pres., dāta- ppp.).

nibey-/ nibah-: nibast ‘to lie down (with)’ < *ni-pad-i̯a- (Av. nī paiδya- pres., Skt. ni pádyate, Khot. nu-vad, Sogd. nipǝδ-: nipǝst, Yaγn. nipēd- ‘to sleep’),

nibāy-/ nibāh-: nibāst ‘to lay down, throw down’ < *ni-pād-ai̯a- (Skt. ni-pādayati, Sogd. nipēδ-).

3.20.10. y: z

bāzūg/ bāyūg ‘arm’ < *bāzu-ka- also bʾdwky /bādūg/ or /bāyūg/ < *bādu-ka- (Av. bāzu- m., Skt. bāhú-).

3.20.11. Geminated yy:

ayyār (also hayyār) ‘helper, assistant, help-mate’ < *adii̯āu̯a-bara- ‘bringing help/ rescue’ (Parth. aδyāvar, Mand. ʾdyʾwrʾ, Paz. ayār, Pers. یاور, یار, cf. udāy-),

ayyārag ‘helper’ (Arab. ايارج ‘medication’),

hayyār (also ayyār) ‘companion, friend’ < *hada-bāra- (Aramaic in Daniel ḥdbryʾ, cf. ŠkZ ḥdbry/ ḥdybʾl: ʾdywr: βοηθοὶ).

§ 3.21. v

Initial, intervocalic, postvocalic v:

vēmār ‘ill, sick’;

vīvag ‘widow’;

gāv ‘cow, ox’.

3.21.1. The sonorant *u̯ is maintained as v at the beginning of a number of words as well as inside words.

grīv a measue of capacity, a grain measure; a measure for measuring fields < *grīu̯a- (Armen. griw ‘a measure (of grain, flour, etc.), bushel’, Arab. جريب , Pers. گریب, cf. Bactr. αγρηοι), cf. ŠKZ 25 nān grīv-ē (ud) must panz: naγn ēv grīv ud panj mušt : ἄρτων μόδιος εἷς ἥμισυς.

nāv (also nāy) ‘boat, ship’ < *nāu̯-ă- (Skt. nā́v-, nā́u- f., Khot. no, Armen. naw ‘boat, ship, vessel’, Osset. I naw, D nawæ, cf. Bactr. νωιο ‘channel’),

nāvag ‘goblet of water or wine’ < *nāu̯a-ka- (Pers. ناوه), nāvak < *nāu̯a-ka-ka- (Armen. nawak ‘boat, bark, barge’, Pers. ناوک),

nāvāz ‘shipman, sailor, pilot’ < *nāu̯-āza- (Av. navāza- m., Skt. nāvājá- m., Sogd. nǝvāz, Armen. nawaz),

nāvbed ‘ship-master, commandant of a ship’ < *nāu̯a-pati- (Aram. nwpt, Armen. nawapet),

nāvxvadāy ‘id.’ (Pers. ناخدا, Arab. نواخذه pl.).

peyvah- ‘to beg, pray, entreat’ implore’ < *pati-u̯ahi̯a- (OPers. p-t-i-y-a-v-h-i-y, Parth. padvah-, Bactr. πιδοοαυ-),

peyvahan ‘entreaty’(Parth. padvahan, Bactr. πιδοοαυανο).

ruvān ‘soul, psyche’ < *ruu̯ān-am (Av. urvan- m., Parth. arvān, Paz. rvą).

tāvān ‘compensation, indemnity, fine’ < *tāu̯āna- (Sogd. tāvān, Bactr. ταοανο, ταοοανο).

tuvān ‘powerful; probable’, s. ‘power, might’, impers. ‘it is probable’ < *tu̯an-, *tu̯ānam (Paz. tvą, cf. Vd 3.33 naēciš axvarǝṇtąm tva : [cē] nē kas az axvardārīh tuvān [ka nē xvared ā-š nē tuvān]).

urvāhm ‘joyful’, s. ‘joy, gladdening, bliss’ < *uru̯āzman- < *u̯rādh-sman-,

urvāhman ‘id.’ < *uru̯āzmanah(i̯a) (Av. urvāzǝman- nt.).

urvar ‘plant, arbour, tree; vegetable(s)’ < *uru̯arā- (Av. urvarā- f. ‘plant, tree’, Skt. urvárā- f. ‘fertile soil, field’, Sogd. ǝrvar ‘medicinal plant’, Paz. urvar, cf. Gr. ἄρουρα ‘corn field’, OIrish arbor ‘corn, grain’).

vahān ‘cause; means; pretext; malady’ < *u̯ahāna-,

vahānag ‘id.’ (Paz. vahąnaa, Aδarb. مهانه, Pers. بهانه, cf. Osset.D ræuonæ ‘cause, appearance’ < *fra-u̯ahāka- from u̯ah ‘to dress’).

var ‘breast; side’ < u̯arah- (Av. varah- nt., Skt. úras- nt. ‘chest, breast’, Bal. gvar, goar ‘breast’, Pers. , cf. Osset. I bwar, D bawær ‘body’),

varbann ‘breastband’ (Arab. فروند, Pers. بربند).

var ‘oath; ordeal; oath of marriage’ < *u̯arah- (Av. varah- nt., Yidγ. war/ wor ‘oath’, Orm. γwar).

var ‘(covered) shelter’ < *u̯ara- (Av. vara- m., Skt. valá- m. ‘cave, pit’, cf. Hungarian vár ‘castle’).

var ‘lake; bay’ < u̯ari- (Av. vairi- m.).

vārān ‘rain, rain-water’ pl. of vār < *u̯āra- (Av. vāra- nt. ‘rain’, Skt. vā́r- nt. ‘water’, vāri- nt. ‘water, rain’, Sogd. vār, Osset. I waryn, D warun, Par. γār, Yaγ. bōrōn, Paz. vārą, Pers. باران).

vardīg z. ‘quail’ < *u̯artikā- (Skt. vártikā- f., Khot. baḍye, Sangl. wŏrc, Waxī wolč, Osset. I wærcc, D wærccæ ‘quail, coturnix’, Bal. gvardāg, Pers. وردیج, ورتیج, ولچ).

vidar-, vider-: vidurd, vidašt ‘to go through, pass; cross, traverse; depart, pass away’ < *u̯i-tar-a- /*u̯i-tar-i̯a-: *u̯i-tṛta- < *u̯i-tṛh2tá- (OPers. vi-tar, Av. vi-tar, vī-tǝrǝta-, Khot. bi-tar, Sogd. vitǝr-, Paz. vadar-, vadīr-, Pers. گذر- : گذشت),

vidār-: vidārd, vidāšt < *u̯i-tār-ai̯a- (Av. °δāraya- caus. pres., Skt. tāráyati, Sogd. vitār-t, Pers. -گذار).

viyān ‘tent’ < *u̯i-dāna- (Parth. viδān, Sogd. viyān, Osset. widon, Bal. gidān, Armen. vran ‘tent, pavilion, tabernacle’, Pers. گیان/guyān/, بیان/biyān/).

3.21.2. It arises from an old intervocalic *b (intervocalic lenition):

asvār ‘rider, on horseback, groom’ < *asa-bāra- < *aśu̯a-bāra- (OPers. asa-bāra-, Pkt. āsavāra-, Pers. سوار, اسوار ).

bar-: burd ‘to bear, carry; endure’ < *bar-a-: *bṛta-, āvar-: āvurd ‘to bring, carry; introduce’ < *ā-bara- (OPers. ā-bara-, Av. ā-bar, bara- pres., bǝrǝta- ppp., Parth. āvar-, Sogd. āβǝr-: āγǝt, Bactr. αβαρ-: αγαδο, Bal. ār-, Paz. āβar-, Pers. -آر-, آور ).

gav ‘hand’ a daēvic term < *gaba- < *ghabho- (Av. gava- m., cf. Khot. ggośtä ‘hand’ < *gabasti-, Wax. gawust ‘fist’, Skt. gábhasti- m. ‘hand; forearm’).

grav ‘cane’ < *graba- (Av. grava- m., Parth. grww, Pers. غرو ).

grav ‘pledge, hypothec, pawn’ < *grabH-a- (Armen. graw ‘pledge, security, mortgage; gage, deposit’, Paz. grōh, Pers.گرو ).

nēv ‘good, brave, valiant; fine’ < *nai̯u̯a- < *nai̯ba- (OPers. naiba-),

nēvag ‘good, nice’ = nēk.

nivann-: nivast ‘to bind on, tie, fasten to; undertake, begin’ < *ni-band-a-: *nibasta- (Av. ni-vaṇda- m., Skt. ni-bandh, nibandha- m.).

peyvann-: peyvast ‘to join; link; transmit, hand down’ < *pati-band-ai̯a-: pati-basta- (Parth. padβand-: padβast, Khot. pabañ-: pabasta-, Paz. paeβaṇd-: paeβast, cf. Sogd. pǝtβǝnd ‘to answer’),

peyvann ‘joining, connection; lineage; tradition’ < *pati-banda- (Sogd. pǝcβand, pǝtβand, Parth. padβand, Paz. paeβaṇd, Pers. پیوند).

rav- : raft ‘to go, walk, stride, proceed, move; continue; act, behave’ < *ráb-a- : rafta- (Bal. rav-aγ, raptʿa, Kurd. ŗoy-ištin, Paz. raβ-).

srŭvar ‘horned’ < *srū-bara- (Av. srvara- adj., cf. Sad dar 9.5 سرور ).

3.21.3. v < *g

¹āvām ‘time, age, season; occasion, point of time; temporal world’ < *abi-gāma- (Av. aiβi.gāma- m. ‘winter; year’, Parth. āγām, Paz. ōγąm), cf. hangām.

²āvām ‘torment, hardship’ < *abi-gāma- (Parth. aβγām, also abžāmag ‘torment’, Sogd. ōγām).

bāg/ bāv ‘garden’ < *bāga- (Skt. bhāgá-, Sogd. βāγ, Pers. باغ ).

drōv ‘false, deceitful’, subst. ‘falsehood, lie’ < *drau̯ga- (OPers. drauga-, Av. draoγa-/ G draoga- adj. ‘false’, m. ‘falsehood, lie, deceit’, Skt. drógha- adj. ‘false, injurious’, m. ‘treachery, injury’, Parth. drōγ, Bactr. λρωγο, δδρωγο, Paz. drōg, Pers. دروغ ).

marv ‘herb; meadow’ < *margā- (Av. marǝγā- f., Parth. marγ, Sogd. marγ, Bact. μαργο, Armen. marg ‘meadow, pasture, prairie, turf, herbage’, Pašt. marγa ‘grass used as fodder’, Arab. مرج , Pers. مرغ, مرو ).

murv ‘bird; chicken’ < *mṛga- (Av. mǝrǝγa- m., Skt. mṛgá-, Parth. murγ, Sogd. mǝrγ, Yaγ. murγ, Bactr. μιργο, Khwar. mγ/ ʾmγ, Khot. mura-, Osset. marγ, Pašt. marγǝ, Bal. murg, murγ, Armen. sira-marg ‘bird of Juno, peacock’, Paz. murū, murvą, Pers. مرغ ),

cf. murvārīd ‘pearl’ (Parth. murγārīd, Sogd. mǝrγārǝt, Khot. mrāhe, Pašt. marγalara, Paz. muravārīt̰, cf. Gr. μαργαρίτης, Armen. margarit ‘pearl; daisy, marguerite’).

muv (also mog/ moγ) ‘Magian priest’ < *magu- (OPers. magu- m., Av. moγu°, Skt. L maga- m., magu- m. ‘priest of the Sun’, Parth. maγ°, Sogd. muγ, muγānē, Armen. mog, movan, Arab. مجوس , Pers. مغ ).

rōvn ‘oil, ghee’ < *rau̯gna- (Av. raoγna- nt. ‘butter’, Parth. rōγn, Sogd. rōγǝn, Khwar. rγyn, Khot. rrūṇä, Šuγ. rūγan, Paz. raogan, Pers. روغن ).

The word for ‘fruit’:

mēv, mēvag (Parth. miγδag, Sogd. mǝγdē, Yaγn. mēva, Bal. mēwag, nēwag, Pers. میه, میوه ).

3.21.4. v: y

nivāg ‘melody, tune, song’ < *ni-u̯āka- (Khot. nvāka, Armen. nuag ‘music, song, strain, air, tune, chant, sonnet’, nuag-el ‘to sing, chant, execute’, Pers. نوا ),

huniyāg ‘having a beautiful melody; delightful’ < *hu-ni-u̯āka-,

huniyāgīh ‘music; delight’ (Pers. خونیا , خنیا ‘modulation, melody; music’),

also huniyākkar ‘musician; entertainer’ < *hu-ni-u̯āka-kara- (Pers. خنیاگر ),

hunivāz ‘musician’ < *hu-ni-u̯āca-.

3.21.5. Cluster vy

vyāxan < *u̯(i)i̯āxana- ‘suited to the contest, challenging’ (Av. vyāxana- adj.).

3.21.6. Syncope

gādumb = gāv-dumb ‘horn, trumpet’ (Arab. جادم ). gāmēš = gāv-mēš ‘buffalo’ (Arab. جاموس ). hamē = hamēv ‘always’ < *hamai̯u̯a- (Parth. hamēv, Pers. می , همی ).